XIII-XV Centuries Research Articles

The urban space of Albi in the XIII—XV centuries

The urban space of Albi in the XIII—XV centuries

LOYALITAS MASYARAKAT JAWA KUNA PADA RAJA MENURUT PRASASTI ABAD XIII–XV

The sima inscription is an edict issued by the king as a gift given to certain parties. One of the reasons for its bestowment is as a reward to those who have shown him loyalty. This paper studies the forms of loyalty shown by the Ancient Javanese People to the king and the factors that influenced it. The study aims to give an understanding of the relationship that existed between the Ancient Javanese people and the king in the XIII–XV Centuries AD. The results of this research provides new insight for the effort to reconstruct the life of the Ancient Javanese people. The method used in this study consists of data collection, data analysis, and interpretation. Based on this series of studies, it can be determined that there are multiple forms of loyalties shown by the Ancient Javanese people to the king and multiple factors that influenced its formation

Восточные и западные венгры в улусах Чагатая и Джучи

The purpose of the study is to identify the links between the groups referred to in the sources of the XIII—XV centuries as “Magyars” or “Hungarians” with nomadic Hungarians or subjects of the Hungarian king who were taken to the east after the Mongol invasion. Traditionally, the first recorded contact between Catholic missionaries and Eastern Hungarians dates back to 1235. However, there is a reason to date the first journey of Julian not to 1234—1235, but to 1221—1222. Julian described two groups of Eastern Hungarians. The first on was located on the territory of the Volga Bulgaria. Those people have already moved to a settled way of life, but have retained the language. The second group — nomadic Hungarians, bordered on the Bulgars from the east. At the time of Julian’s visit to them, they entered into a military alliance with the Jochi Mongols. A year after Julian’s departure in the second half of 1223, the Mongols began a war with the Hungarians and the Eastern Kypchaks. Apparently, it began on the orders of Chagatai, whom Genghis Khan sent to the west along with Jochi. The confrontation between the Eastern Hungarians and the Mongols ended with the subjugation of Greater Hungary in 1236. Part of the Eastern Hungarians moved west to the borders of Rus’, where they lived in the second half of the 15th century. Another group of Hungarians is recorded in the 14th century in the Chagatai ulus. This was an aristocratic group that included someone from the Arpad dynasty, while circumstantial evidence suggests their stable relationship with the Jochids.

Culture and living aspects of the North Caucasians in the XIII-XV centuries

Culture and living aspects of the North Caucasians in the XIII-XV centuries

NEW AND MODIFIED ELEMENTS IN THE MORDOVIAN COSTUME OF THE XIII–XV CENTURIES

In any ethnic group a costume is part of the ethnic characteristics of the people. Along with other elements, it distinguishes one nation from its neighbors.
 
 The purpose of the study is to analyze accentuating a decorative complex and clarify the dating of its existence.
 
 Materials and methods. The main source base of the research is archaeological sources both published in various periodicals and collected in original reports stored in the Field Research Department of the Archaeology Institute under the Russian Academy of Sciences. The research is based on the principle of historicism, the typological archaeological one and the method of ethnic correspondence.
 
 Study results. The Mordovian costume preserves almost all the elements of the decorative complex that existed in the previous period. The only exception is made by the temporal pendants with a weight, which remain an ethnic marker of the Mordovian people since the moment of the Mordovian culture’s emergence until the XIII century. The rest of the complex, although not as bright as in the previous time, remains almost the same in terms of the set of decorations. Only their forms change along with the change of the entire cultural image, which is chronological in nature. Breast ornaments and hand ornaments are preserved. Temporal pendants give way to temporal rings.
 
 Conclusions. The opinion that the Mordovian culture of the XIII–XV centuries is declining is not justified. During this period, the objective process of its development continues, which in the second half of the 30s of the XIII century due to historical events received a new vector. The highest prosperity of the Mordovian culture of the time under consideration dates back to the middle of the XIV century, which corresponds both to the ecological and political situation in Eastern Europe. The XIII–XV centuries are a new stage in the development of the Mordovian culture, which can be seen on the example of the metal decor. The chronology of the decorative complex in the Mordovian costume of the Golden Horde period needs clarification, which is partially done in this article.

The Role of Extralinguistic Factors in the Formation of the Lexical-Semantic Group "Fortitude (Courage) " In the English And Spanish Languages of the XIII-XV Centuries

The article discusses the features of the formation of the lexical-semantic group "Fortitude (Courage) " in the English and Spanish languages of the XIII-XV centuries, an important role in the formation of which was played by extralinguistic, in particular, religious factors. The source of the research material in English is presented by manuscripts of the XIII-XV centuries contained in the Corpus of Middle English Prose and Verse. The source of the research material in Spanish is presented by manuscripts of the XIII-XV centuries contained in the electronic corpus of the Corpus del español. The lexemes of this group in the languages under study belonged to the core of the lexis of positive moral and ethical evaluation in the period under review. This is explained by the significant role of the Church in the formation of ethical norms in mediaeval society. Mediaeval authors singled out seven virtues, three of which were considered theological (Faith, Hope, Love), and the remaining four were called cardinal: Prudence, Justice, Purity, and Fortitude (Courage). The names of virtues became semantic centers around which lexis of positive moral and ethical evaluation was formed in the English and Spanish languages of the XIII-XV centuries.

Sejarah Maritim di Nusantara (Abad VII-XVI): Interkoneksi Kerajaan Sriwijaya, Majapahit, dan Demak

Archipelago, the main theme of this article, is a term for a region known as Southeast Asia today, especially the countries with similar historical events about ancient rulers, such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and others. Thus, the writing of this article was directed at reviewing material related to the existence of rulers, especially those engaged in the maritime field in the archipelago, with a focus on discussion on three subjects, including Sriwijaya, Majapahit and Demak, and was selected on the basis of similarities in historical events. The method used was descriptive analysis through books and other written materials, such as journal articles and seminar proceedings. Then, a written description of the reading and an unwritten description of the material in the form of photos/pictures were added. Lastly, the analysis was carried out using the concept of “Total History” proposed by Fernand Braudel. In this concept, there were three historical facts in one period, namely events, conjuncture, and structure. The findings of this article explained the development of the three maritime rulers of the archipelago, including the Srivijaya Kingdom (VII-XIII centuries), Majapahit Kingdom (XIII-XV centuries), and Demak Kingdom (XV-XVI centuries), which referred to the concept as an internal event empire since its inception, heyday, and decline. In addition, the interconnection of the three kingdoms was the existence of the side of the descendants of the previous kings and the enthusiasm for building the civilization of the archipelago, which was passed on to the rulers afterward through strengthening in the maritime sector.

THE MYTHICAL AND MYSTICAL POSITION OF NUMBERS IN 13TH–15TH CENTURY TURKIC LANGUAGE POETRY

The article examines the mythical, mystical and mysterious meanings of the numbers included in people's religious-philosophical meetings. XIII–XV centuries Turkish poets' different views on numbers with a special meaning in their work are being refined. The hidden themes touched by the artists of the word, who reflect the literary and artistic principles of the period in their works, are refined by using numbers. The article clarifies the conclusions of our elders, owners of ideas and words in relation to certain events, with examples from oral literature. In the context we will talk about, in addition to studying the place and position of numbers in rational thinking, attention is paid to the investigation of the main factors that play a role in their creation. It is a fact that the thinkers who took refuge in folk wisdom and benefited from examples of oral literature from mythical meanings in their creations were always distinguished by their works. We can definitely say that the advantage of the genius wordsmiths of world literature over others was that they relied only on folk literature, mythology, and mastered it. From this point of view, the meanings of the numbers included in the work "Jumjumanama", translated by Fariduddin Attar and made with enough additions, are also investigated in the article.

Contributions to the study of the Melgarejo Tower (Jerez de la Frontera, Cádiz).

This study presents different documentary data on which to support the historical contextualization of the medieval building complex of Torre de Melgarejo (Jerez de la Frontera), thus allowing the elaboration of formal analyzes based on this typology of defensive architecture that articulated the territory of the kingdom of Seville during the XIII-XV centuries.

Tatars of the Jochid Ulus: the formation and development of an ethnopolitical identity in the 13th–15th centuries

Research objectives: To analyze the processes behind the formation and development of the Tatar ethnopolitical community in the Ulus of Jochi in the XIII–XV centuries. Research materials: The author of the article examines a variety of sources that reflect the progressive development of the Tatar ethnopolitical community in the Ulus of Jochi during the XIII–XV centuries. Results and novelty of the research: The Tatars of the Jochid Ulus during the XIII–XV centuries were usually studied from a socio-political point of view, with little attention being paid to the study of mental structures. Nevertheless, the formation of the ethnopolitical community of the Tatars – something which determines the mental universe of the population of the Ulus of Jochi – deserves and receives here more intensive study. The Mongol invasion brought not only destruction to the countries of Eurasia, but also led to the formation of a new Mongol Empire, and at the end of the XIII century, the successor Chingisid states. In all these khanates, there was a process of formation of their statehood and ethnopolitical consolidation. In the Ulus of Jochi, this process was associated with the formation of the Tatar ethnopolitical community. It turns out that during the conquests of Chingis Khan and his heirs in different countries of Eurasia from the Near and Middle East to Central Asia and Eastern Europe, Tatars were present among the troops of the Khans, playing the role of a military aristocracy. Due to these objective and other subjective reasons, the Tatar identity became the leading one in the Jochid Ulus, manifesting itself in the ideas that the Jochid Ulus was a country of the Tatars, the term itself becoming synonymous with the military service aristocracy. Tatars were also understood as Turkic nomadic people with their own clan structure.

Assessment of the quality of double-entry bookkeeping, the resources needed to create it, and the ingenuity of medieval merchants

The traditional hypothesis about the origin of double-entry bookkeeping is based on the assumption that double-entry bookkeeping was accidentally invented and perfected during one XIII century by amateur merchants who did not have a specific purpose and did not know the methods of designing information technologies. in other words, double-entry bookkeeping is created with the involvement of minimal intellectual, financial and time resources. the whole building of this hypothesis is based on this assumption. This assumption itself is not based on anything: neither on documents, nor on estimates, nor on reasoning. the article shows by a comparative historical method the implausibility of this assumption, and hence the hypothesis about the origin of double-entry bookkeeping in general. This was done in several independent ways, which made it possible to demonstrate the outstanding qualitative characteristics of double-entry bookkeeping, the huge resources needed to create it, and the extremely insignificant ingenuity (in terms of information technology development) of the Europeans of the XIII-XV centuries (including merchants). the results of the study showed that the creation of double bookkeeping required at least five centuries of purposeful work of professional methodologists funded by the state, whereas medieval merchants were not able to invent double bookkeeping in any reasonable time.

Medieval Shields of Europe and Rus’ (Construction, Military Symbolic Significance, Development)

The article considers the problem of the development of shields, the main element of medieval protective equipment, and an important military and heraldic symbol in Ukrainian medieval state of Rus’ and in Europe in general. The state of the research and the source base are outlined. The main trends in the development of the design and symbolic significance of shields in Europe during the Middle Ages are outlined. At the same time, emphasis was placed on sources concerning Rus’ lands and adjacent territories. The author draws attention to the need to compare archaeological, written and iconographic sources in one study. The study focuses on the most representative sources, especially those that can be to apply on material from the Rus’ lands. It is emphasized that the shield as a basic element of protective equipment during the Middle Ages, іn Rus’ lands largely developed in line with European trends. Which in turn makes it impossible to isolate local features about to beginning of the ХІІІ century. At the turn of the XII–XIII centuries in some regions of Eastern Europe, namely the Rus’-Baltic-Polish border, a relatively new type of shield is being formed, the so-called “protopaveza”. This in turn had a direct impact on the armaments of Rus’ and the Teutonic Order in the ХІІІ–ХІV centuries. The author analyzes the main interactions and borrowings of types of shields between different regions of Eastern Europe during the Middle Ages. It is noted that in the Ukrainian medieval state of Rus’, which was at the intersection of Eastern and Western military traditions, shields of both European types and the eastern “kalkan” could be used. However, given the available sources, it is safe to say that the European trend of development of this protective equipment had an advantage. The author came to the conclusion that the shields used in Rus’ and Europe in the X–XII centuries generally belonged to the same types. In particular, it is round, almond-shaped and triangular shields. The issue of shields of the XIII–XV centuries remains more complicated. During this period can be observed as the influence of Western Europe on Rus’, for example, the spread of the knight's “tarch”. And trends that began in Eastern Europe, namely the spread of pavises in the XIV–XV centuries.

About the Time of the Adoption of Islam by the Population of the Southern Ural

The object of the study is the adoption of Islam by the population of the Southern Ural. The subject of the study is the question of the time of the adoption of Islam in the territory of modern Bashkortostan – the largest region of the Southern Urals. The author examines in detail such aspects of the topic as the historiography of the issue, the spread of Islam among Bashkirs according to narrative sources – information from foreign travelers and Bashkir legends, archaeological sites with a Muslim funeral rite. In historiography, the question of the time of the adoption of Islam by Bashkirs has been repeatedly revised in the direction of antiquity. Narrative sources link the Islamization of Bashkirs with the activities of missionaries from Volga Bulgaria and the Golden Horde. In archeology, the spread of Islam on the territory of Bashkortostan is associated with the Chiyalik culture of the XII-XIV centuries. Special attention is paid to the funerary monuments of the nomadic population of steppe origin, dated XIII-XV centuries. Having settled in the land of Bashkirs, the nomads converted to Islam. A special contribution of the author to the study of the topic is a comparative analysis of the "pagan" and Muslim burials of the XIII-XV centuries, identified within the republic. A total of 84 burials were recorded. Of these, 31 burials were performed according to the "pagan" rite, dated XIII-XIV centuries., 53 burials were performed according to the Muslim rite, dated XIV-XV centuries. It is concluded that the archaeological data correspond to written sources reporting the adoption of Islam in Bashkiria in the XIV century. The novelty of the study lies in clarifying the dating of the three main stages of Islamization of the region's population. The penetration of Islam into the Bashkir environment occurs in the pre–Mongol period, the spread of Islam – in the Golden Horde period, the establishment of Islam - after the XV century. The process of Islamization ends with the disappearance of the burial burial rite and the transition to the modern Muslim funeral rite. Voluntary entry into Russia guaranteed Bashkirs freedom of religion.

A.V. EKZEMPLYARSKIY ABOUT INTER-PRINCELY RELATIONS IN RUSSIA

The article is devoted to the consideration of the views of A.V. Ekzemplyarsky on the peculiarities of relations between Russian princes in XIII-XV centuries based on the study of specific judgments contained in his work. An attempt is made to assess the contribution of the historian to the development of the historiography of Medieval Russia. Attention is drawn to the need to study the place and role of historians of the “second plan” in Russian historical science.

The Medieval European Diplomatic Dimension (XIII–XV Centuries): Field of Research, Achievements and New Approaches

The Medieval European Diplomatic Dimension (XIII–XV Centuries): Field of Research, Achievements and New Approaches

Commercial practices of the Italian merchantry during the XIII–XV centuries: cross-cultural communication

The problem of cross-cultural contacts is one of the most relevant topics in the research field of culturology. This article turns to the question of cross-cultural interaction on the example of medieval colonization of the maritime republics of the Apennine Peninsula. The object of this research is the economic and cultural processes of Italian expansion in the XIII–XV centuries. The subject is the commercial practices of the merchants, specifically from the republics Amalfi, Genoa, Venice, Pisa, and Florence. The goal of this article consists in the analysis of operations and practices introduced into the European economy from the culturological perspective. The leading methodological vector relies on the theory of cultural transfer developed by the French researcher Michel Espagne. It is established that that a range of economic and cultural phenomena is the product of cultural transfer. The application of M. Espagne’s theory of cultural transfer to the analysis of the phenomenon of Italian colonization is carried out for the first time, which defines the novelty of this work. The research results lies in the analysis of establishment of the economic and cultural phenomena, determination of cooperation of the republics of the Apennine Peninsula within the region and other European states and Arab culture, as well as the consideration of the republics of the Apennine Peninsula as trade partners, rather than competing countries alone. The provided materials can me valuable in the sphere of Mediterranean studies, for the development of cross-disciplinary scientific projects in the area of culturology and economics, as well as for profound research of Italian culture and the phenomenon of expansion of the republics of the Apennine Peninsula in the Middle Ages.

La cittá di Cava (1461-1501). I regesti delle carte senatore

In the south of Italy, State cities (città demaniali) were few under the Angevin and Aragon domination (XIII-XV centuries) and departing from the 1394 Cava was one of them although there worked two types of authorities: royal and feudal. The political and institutional organization of Cava, an important city “demaniale” in the south of Italy is studied by an unpublished local archive source

La cittá di Cava (1461-1501). I regesti delle carte senatore

In the south of Italy, State cities (citta demaniali) were few under the Angevin and Aragon domination (XIII-XV centuries) and departing from the 1394 Cava was one of them although there worked two types of authorities: royal and feudal. The political and institutional organization of Cava, an important city “demaniale” in the south of Italy is studied by an unpublished local archive source

Closely related marriages of the princes of North-Eastern Rus’ in the XIV–XV centuries

The paper is devoted to closely related marriages of princes descendants of Vsevolod the Big Nest in the XIIIXV centuries, which have not received sufficient attention from researchers. After analyzing the known marriages the author came to the conclusion that in general Rurikids in this historical period followed the traditions of pre-Mongol Rus, considering the 7th degree of kinship for closely related marriages to be most acceptable. This is evidenced by the few examples available to us. This tradition was followed by the princes of the leading principalities not only in the external arena, but also within their dynasties in order to strengthen family unity. At the same time, with the rise of Moscow, joining and the fall of the importance of other principalities as well as due to political reasons, Moscow princes from the 15th century began to marry in the 6th degree of kinship with the great princes of Tver, Ryazan and Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod. Of particular interest is the marriage of the daughter of the Grand Prince of Moscow Vasily Dmitrievich with two representatives of the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod dynasty. The available evidence also show that a similar tradition of marriages in such degrees of kinship was followed by the appanage princes on the periphery.

ABOUT MEDIEVAL EGYPTIAN HISTORIANS

This article is dedicated to the life and work of historians of the Mamluk period (1250-1517) in Egypt and the rich heritage left by them. In the XIII-XV centuries, Egypt had a special place among the countries of the Middle East due to the activities of the Mamluks. The prestige of the Mamluk sultans increased due to their victories in the fght against the Crusaders and the Mongols in the Middle East. The establishment of Mamluk rule in the history of Egypt, the growth of the superiority of military Mamluks in the country, the rise of the Bakhrit Mamluk sultans (1250-1382) and the political processes of the Burjit (Circassian) Mamluk period (1282-1517) are of particular interest for s this study. This article provides extensive information on the activities and works of medieval historians such as Abu alMahasin, Ibn Daud Al-Sayraf, Abd Ar-Rahman As-Sahawi, Jalal ad-Din As-Suyuti, Ibn Iyas Muhammad ibn Ahmad and Ibn Zanbal Ar-Rummal, Ali ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Asir, Abd Ar-Rahman Ibn Khaldun, al-Umari, Shahab ad-din alKalkashandi, Taki ad-din Al-Makrizi, Az-Zahiri, Khalil ibn Shahin. Relevance: After Uzbekistan gained independence, orientalists have new opportunities to search, study and disseminate information about Islam and the history of Islam among the general public. When studying the period of the history of the Mamluks in Egypt, many aspects of the history of Mavaraunnahr of that time are also revealed. Studying the primary sources containing information on this topic makes it possible to objectively evaluate the political, social and economic processes of this period. Methods. The article uses generally accepted historical methods based on the principles of historicity, structurality and objectivity. Conclusions: Also, it must be pointed out that objective coverage of the history of this period, in addition to the historical works of the above authors of the 13th-15th centuries, is facilitated by the study of various scientifc treatises, commentaries, shortened versions of works (almukhtasar), dictionaries, prose and poetic works.