Te-doped GaAs Research Articles

Effect of a traveling magnetic field on the parameters of doped tellurium gallium arsenide single crystals grown by the chokhralsky method

The effect of a traveling magnetic field on the parameters of Te-doped GaAs single crystals in the carrier density range of 5 × 1017–2 × 1018 cm–3 has been studied. A traveling magnetic field was induced in a melt by a graphite inductor located in the setup chamber around the main heater. It is shown that a high-frequency magnetic field slightly reduces the dislocation density in the crystals without changing the shape of the dislocation distribution over their cross sections. The magnetic field affects the impurity distribution along the crystal axis, almost doubling the distance between the striation bands from 9 µm in the absence of magnetic field to 17 µm in a field with a frequency of 300 Hz.

A Study on the Effects of Gallium Droplet Consumption and Post Growth Annealing on Te-Doped GaAs Nanowire Properties Grown by Self-Catalyzed Molecular Beam Epitaxy

In this work, the effects of arsenic (As) flux used during gallium (Ga) seed droplet consumption and the post-growth annealing on the optical, electrical, and microstructural properties of self-catalyzed molecular beam epitaxially grown tellurium (Te)-doped GaAs nanowires (NWs) have been investigated using a variety of characterization techniques. NWs using the same amount of As flux for growth of the seed droplet consumption demonstrated reduced density of stacking faults at the NW tip, with four-fold enhancement in the 4K photoluminescence (PL) intensity and increased single nanowire photocurrent over their higher As flux droplet consumption counterparts. Post-growth annealed NWs exhibited an additional low-energy PL peak at 1.31 eV that significantly reduced the overall PL intensity. The origin of this lower energy peak is assigned to a photocarrier transition from the conduction band to the annealing assisted Te-induced complex acceptor state (TeAsVGa−). In addition, post-growth annealing demonstrated a detrimental impact on the electrical properties of the Te-doped GaAs NWs, as revealed by suppressed single nanowire (SNW) and ensemble NW photocurrent, with a consequent enhanced low-frequency noise level compared to as-grown doped NWs. This work demonstrates that each parameter in the growth space must be carefully examined to successfully grow self-catalyzed Te-doped NWs of high quality and is not a simple extension of the growth of corresponding intrinsic NWs.

Cathodoluminescence mapping of electron concentration in MBE-grown GaAs:Te nanowires

Cathodoluminescence mapping is used as a contactless method to probe the electron concentration gradient of Te-doped GaAs nanowires. The room temperature and low temperature (10 K) cathodoluminescence analysis method previously developed for GaAs:Si is first validated on five GaAs:Te thin film samples, before extending it to the two GaAs:Te NW samples. We evidence an electron concentration gradient ranging from below 1 × 1018 cm−3 to 3.3 ×1018 cm−3 along the axis of a GaAs:Te nanowire grown at 640 °C, and a homogeneous electron concentration of around 6–8 × 1017 cm−3 along the axis of a GaAs:Te nanowire grown at 620 °C. The differences in the electron concentration levels and gradients between the two nanowires is attributed to different Te incorporation efficiencies by vapor–solid and vapor–liquid–solid processes.

Phase Diagram for Twinning Superlattice Te-Doped GaAs Nanowires.

Twinning superlattices (TSLs) are a growing class of semiconductor structures proposed as a means of phonon and optical engineering in nanowires (NWs). In this work, we examine TSL formation in Te-doped GaAs NWs grown by a self-assisted vapor-liquid-solid mechanism (with a Ga droplet as the seed particle), using selective-area molecular beam epitaxy. In these NWs, the TSL structure is comprised of alternating zincblende twins, whose formation is promoted by the introduction of Te dopants. Using transmission electron microscopy, we investigated the crystal structure of NWs across various growth conditions (V/III flux ratio, temperature), finding periodic TSLs only at the low V/III flux ratio of 0.5 and intermediate growth temperatures of 492 to 537 °C. These results are explained by a kinetic growth model based on the diffusion flux feeding the Ga droplet.

Magnetoplastic Effect in Te-Doped GaAs Single Crystals

The influence of a dc magnetic field on the motion of growth dislocations with a density of (0.7–7.0) × 104 cm–2 and the electron density in the range of 5 × 1017–2.5 × 1018 cm–3 in Te-doped GaAs single crystals has been investigated. One experiment was performed with different magnetic field inductions (0.18, 0.33, and 0.50 T) and exposure time of 5 min. In another experiment the samples were subjected to a 0.50-T magnetic field for 3, 5, and 10 min. It is shown that the dislocations undergo the largest shift at the minimum magnetic field induction and the shortest treatment time. The maximum change in the electron density also occurs under these conditions. With the treatment time increase the dislocations tend to their initial positions and the electron density decreases.

Te incorporation and activation as n -type dopant in self-catalyzed GaAs nanowires

Dopant atoms can be incorporated into nanowires either via the vapor-liquid-solid mechanism through the catalyst droplet or by the vapor-solid growth on the sidewalls. Si is a typical n-type dopant for GaAs, but in nanowires it often suffers from a strongly amphoteric nature in the vapor-liquid-solid process. This issue can be avoided by using Te, which is a promising but less common alternative for $n$-type doping of GaAs nanowires. Here, we present a detailed investigation of Te-doped self-catalyzed GaAs nanowires. We use several complementary experimental techniques, such as atom probe tomography, off-axis electron holography, micro-Raman spectroscopy, and single-nanowire transport characterization, to assess the Te concentration, the free-electron concentration, and the built-in potential in Te-doped GaAs nanowires. By combing the experimental results with a theoretical model, we show that Te atoms are mainly incorporated by the vapor-liquid-solid process through the Ga droplet, which leads to both axial and radial dopant gradients due to Te diffusion inside the nanowires and competition between axial elongation and radial growth of nanowires. Furthermore, by comparing the free-electron concentration from Raman spectroscopy and the Te-atom concentrations from atom probe tomography, we show that the activation of Te donor atoms is $100%$ at a doping level of $4\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}{10}^{18}\phantom{\rule{0.16em}{0ex}}\mathrm{c}{\mathrm{m}}^{\ensuremath{-}3}$, which is a significant result in terms of future device applications.

Effects of various dopants on properties of GaAs tunneling junctions and p–i–n solar cells

Several GaAs tunneling junctions (TJs) and p–i–n single junction solar cells grown using a planetary metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) reactor utilizing various dopant species including Zn, C, S, and Te were investigated. The incorporation of Te atoms into GaAs was approximately two orders larger than that of S atoms. Although only 30% of Te atoms could be electrically activated, a carrier concentration of 1019 cm−3 was achieved. Highly C-doped GaAs was successfully obtained by decreasing the growth temperature and increasing the amount of H2 carrier gas in order to prevent the predecomposition of CBr4 dopant gas. A hole concentration of about 1020 cm−3 was realized with a growth temperature of 450 °C. The C–Te-doped GaAs TJ exhibited the best ohmic tunneling behavior with a resistivity of 12.5 mΩ·cm2, while the others had diode characteristics. The GaAs solar cell grown with the Zn–S dopant showed the highest conversion efficiency ascribed to a longer minority carrier lifetime.

Epitaxial Fe on free-standing GaAs nanowires

Epitaxial Fe contacts have been fabricated onto the top half of free-standing, Te-doped GaAs nanowires (NWs) via electrodeposition. Electrical isolation from the substrate via a polymeric layer enabled the measurement of electrical transport through individual wires. Using a fixed probe within a scanning electron microscope, an average metal-semiconductor diode barrier height of 0.69 ± 0.03 eV (ideality factor 1.48 ± 0.02) was found.

Surface passivation of tellurium-doped GaAs nanowires by GaP: Effect on electrical conduction

We report on the surface passivation of Au-assisted Te-doped GaAs nanowires (NWs) grown by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy. The electrical properties of individual free standing NWs were assessed using a tungsten nano-probe inside a scanning electron microscope. The diameter independent apparent resistivity of both strained and relaxed passivated NWs suggests the unpinning of the Fermi level and reduction of sidewalls surface states density. Similar current-voltage properties were observed for partially axially relaxed GaAs/GaP NWs. This indicates a negligible contribution of misfit dislocations in the charge transport properties of the NWs. Low temperature micro-photoluminescence (μ-PL) measurements were also carried out for both uncapped and passivated GaAs NWs. The improvement of the integrated (μ-PL) intensity for GaAs/GaP NWs further confirms the effect of passivation.

Inhibition of Te surfactant effect on surface morphology of heavily Te-doped GaAs

The surface morphology and incorporation behavior of heavily Te-doped GaAs were studied for various growth parameters by chemical beam epitaxy (CBE). The Te precursor, DIPTe (diisopropyl telluride), acts as a volatile dopant in the growth temperature range of 475–595°C. Electrical activation of Te is increased for lower growth temperatures. The Te surfactant effect was shown to lead to three-dimensional growth, which greatly affected the resulting surface morphology. We have shown that growth parameters can be tuned to reduce the Te surfactant effect through kinetic limitation, thus obtaining improved surface morphologies.

Identification of defect properties by positron annihilation in Te-doped GaAs after Cu in-diffusion

Positron lifetime measurements and Doppler-broadening spectroscopy were combined to investigate the defect properties during Cu diffusion in Te-doped GaAs. The diffusion of Cu was performed during an annealing step at 1100 \ifmmode^\circ\else\textdegree\fi{}C under two different arsenic vapor pressures. The samples were quenched into room temperature water. During a subsequent isochronal annealing experiment, it was found that vacancy clusters were generated and grown, and finally they disappeared. The lifetime results show that, in addition to deep positron traps of vacancy type, positron trapping with a lifetime close to the bulk value of 228 ps occurs. The positron lifetime results give direct evidence of positron localization at shallow traps in GaAs:Te. Due to the Cu contamination during the annealing process, the shallow trap is believed to be the ${\mathrm{Cu}}_{\mathrm{Ga}}^{2\ensuremath{-}}$ double acceptor. The concentration of shallow traps is determined and found to be in good agreement with the concentration determined by Hall measurement. It decreases up to saturation with increasing annealing. The positron binding energy to these negative nonopen volume trap centers is determined to be 79 meV. It is found to be in agreement with the calculated value. Moreover, coincidence Doppler-broadening spectroscopy shows clearly that Cu atoms are bound in the direct vicinity of the observed vacancy-like defects. Theoretical calculations of momentum distribution predicted that one Cu atom incorporated into a Ga site surrounds the observed open-volume defects.

Selective epitaxial growth of GaAs by current controlled liquid phase epitaxy

Selective epitaxial growth of Te-doped GaAs on circularly patterned GaAs (100) substrate was investigated by liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) and current controlled liquid phase epitaxy (CCLPE). SiNx was used as a mask layer to fabricate circular windows on the substrate and the effect of various growth periods and current densities on the growth morphology were investigated. A truncated pyramid like structure with a vertical thickness of 337μm and a lateral thickness of 268μm was achieved on the circularly patterned substrate at 6h growth with an applied current density of 20Acm−2. The vertical growth was increased almost one order and lateral growth was increased up to nine times compared to standard LPE growth. The growth step density was higher at window walls and it caused relatively higher growth compared to its centre. The surface morphology and selective epitaxial growth were greatly improved by an applied DC electric current. The dislocation density of the grown epilayer was significantly reduced when compared with that of the substrate. Solute transport in the solution was enhanced by the electromigration of solute by an electric current, which enhanced growth in vertical and lateral directions.

Rectifying characteristics of Te-doped GaAs nanowires

We report on the electrical properties of Te-doped GaAs nanowires (NW) grown via the vapor-liquid-solid mechanism. Gold nanoparticles were used as growth catalysts and contacts for electrical measurements using a nanoprobe technique. Semi-log I-V curves show 6-8 decades of forward-voltage linearity giving an ideality factor of 1.25 ± 0.06 and barrier height of 0.78 ± 0.04 eV. When normalized to NW cross-sectional area, all curves overlapped consistent with an n-type carrier concentration (9 ± 1) × 1017 cm−3 and a constant NW resistivity (2.5 ± 0.5) × 10−3 Ω cm. Raman spectroscopy indicated a small surface depletion width of less than 5 nm.

10.1007/s11451-008-2006-z

The micromechanical properties of Te-doped GaAs single crystals with free carrier density n 0 = 1017−5 × 1018 cm−3 were studied. The obtained data are as follows: the nonmonotonic concentration dependences of the microhardness, the lengths of dislocation rosette rays, the densities of dislocations, and the position and half-width of the Raman line of a transverse optical phonon. The data are interpreted in terms of spatial correlation in the impurity defect distribution.

Phase composition of microdefects in heavily doped n-GaAs

The phase composition of the microdefects in Te-doped GaAs single crystals grown by the Czochralski technique with a free carrier density n 0 =5×10 17 –5×10 18 cm −3 was investigated. Ga 2 Te 3 phase reflections appeared in the X-ray diffraction patterns. Nonmonotonic dependences of the relative volume fraction and the coherent scattering domain size of Ga 2 Te 3 on Te doping level were obtained. The possible causes of the nonmonotonic variation in the structural parameters of the Ga 2 Te 3 phase with increase of Te concentration in GaAs are discussed.

GaAs Core−Shell Nanowires for Photovoltaic Applications

We report the use of Te as an n-type dopant in GaAs core-shell p-n junction nanowires for use in photovoltaic devices. Te produced significant change in the morphology of GaAs nanowires grown by the vapor-liquid-solid process in a molecular beam epitaxy system. The increase in radial growth of nanowires due to the surfactant effect of Te had a significant impact on the operating characteristics of photovoltaic devices. A decrease in solar cell efficiency occurred when the Te-doped GaAs growth duration was increased.

Effect of correlation in the impurity defect distribution on the micromechanical properties of GaAs: Te single crystals

The micromechanical properties of Te-doped GaAs single crystals with free carrier density n0 = 1017−5 × 1018 cm−3 were studied. The obtained data are as follows: the nonmonotonic concentration dependences of the microhardness, the lengths of dislocation rosette rays, the densities of dislocations, and the position and half-width of the Raman line of a transverse optical phonon. The data are interpreted in terms of spatial correlation in the impurity defect distribution.

Influence of dislocation content on the quantitative determination of the doping level distribution in n-GaAs using absorption mapping

In an earlier paper [P.J. Wellmann, A. Albrecht, U. Künecke, B. Birkmann, G. Mueller, M. Jurisch, Eur. Phys. J. Appl. Phys. 27, 357 (2004)] an optical method based on whole wafer absorption measurements was presented to determine the charge carrier concentration and its lateral distribution in n-type (Si/Te) doped GaAs. The submitted results for Si-doped GaAs gave rise to questions concerning the interpretation of absorption mappings in wafers with high dislocation densities. GaAs substrates for optoelectronic devices are strongly affected by dislocations. Therefore further studies were conducted: absorption and Hall measurements were performed on GaAs:Si wafers with high and low dislocation densities. Absorption in Si-doped GaAs is far more complex than in Te-doped GaAs. It shows a co-dependency on charge carrier concentration and dislocation content which causes complications in the quantitative optical determination of the charge carrier concentration. Qualitatively, absorption mappings depict dislocations and variations of charge carrier concentration very well.

Determination of the charge carrier compensation mechanism in Te-doped GaAs by scanning tunneling microscopy

We identified the charge carrier compensation mechanism in Te-doped GaAs with atomically resolved scanning tunneling microscopy. Three types of defects were found: tellurium donors (TeAs), Ga vacancies (VGa), and Ga vacancy–donor complexes (VGa–TeAs). We show quantitatively that the compensation in Te-doped bulk GaAs is exclusively caused by vacancy–donor complexes in contrast to Si-doped GaAs. This is explained with the Fermi-level effect as the universal mechanism leading to Ga vacancy formation in n-doped GaAs, and a Coulomb interaction leading to the formation of the complexes. The quantification of the carrier compensation yields a −3e charge state of VGa in bulk GaAs.

Effective electron mass in heavily doped GaAs in the ordering of impurity complexes

Spectra of edge photoluminescence (PL) at 300 K have been studied in a set of Czochralski-grown Te-doped GaAs single crystals with a free carrier density of n0=1017–1019 cm−3. The carrier density dependences of the chemical potential and band gap narrowing are obtained by analyzing the PL spectral line profiles. The dependence of the effective mass of electrons at the bottom of the conduction band on their density, m 0 * (n0), is calculated. It is shown that the nonmonotonic m 0 * (n0) dependence correlates with data on electron scattering in the material under study and results from the ordering of impurity complexes.