Packet Reception Probability Research Articles

Performance analysis of cognitive radio‐assisted clustering car‐following V2X communication system

SummaryIn this paper, we study high spectrum efficiency transmission in vehicle to everything (V2X) system to allow the roadside unit (RSU) broadcasts its safety information to vehicles which belong to a dedicated group. However, low latency and high reliability are tightly required in related applications of V2X; we explore advantages of cognitive radio (CR) and non‐orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) to form system, namely, CR NOMA‐V2X. Such considered system provides transmissions from the RSU to vehicles with respect to lower access latency and to enhance the packet reception probability. In the proposed scheme, the vehicles need channel state information (CSI) for signal decoding order, but we face with imperfect CSI occurs in practical scenarios. To evaluate such degraded system performance of the involved CR NOMA‐V2X, we introduce the approximate closed‐form expressions of outage probability. Numerical results indicate the validness of our derivations.

A Blockchain Based Federated Learning for Message Dissemination in Vehicular Networks

Message exchange among vehicles plays an important role in ensuring road safety. Emergency message dissemination is usually carried out by broadcasting. However, high vehicle density and mobility lead to challenges in message dissemination such as broadcasting storm and low probability of packet reception. This paper proposes a federated learning based blockchain-assisted message dissemination solution. Similar to the incentive-based Proof-of-Work consensus in blockchain, vehicles compete to become a relay node (miner) by processing the proposed Proof-of-Federated-Learning (PoFL) consensus which is embedded in the smart contract of blockchain. Both theoretical and practical analysis of the proposed solution are provided. Specifically, the proposed blockchain based federated learning results in more vehicles uploading their models in a given time, which can potentially lead to a more accurate model in less time as compared to the same solution without using blockchain. It also outperforms other blockchain approaches in reducing 65.2% of time delay in consensus, improving at least 8.2% message delivery rate and preserving privacy of neighbor vehicle more efficiently. The economic model to incentivize vehicles participating in federated learning and message dissemination is further analyzed using Stackelberg game. The analysis of asymptotic complexity proves PoFL as the most scalable solution compared to other consensus algorithms in vehicular networks.

An Approach for Intersection Prevention in Transmission Channel Using Correlation Matrix and Tree Construction Model in V2X Framework

Typically, the delivery of information in vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) is regarded as a demanding one because of high mobility and invariable topological difference. One major concern in VANET framework is the occurrence of simulated intersection at which the packet reception probability become complicated for predicting and the model turn out to be complex highly. So as to overcome this dispute, a new framework is introduced which in turn prevents the intersection among the transmission path. Initially, the system model is initialized and the availability of channel is estimated. Based on the strength and size of data to be transmitted, the availability of channel is computed. After that, the best forwarding zone computation is made for minimizing the redundant data packets flow. To check the priority of packet and occurrence of packet collision, tree construction based data strength transmission is employed at last, the prevention of intersection or collision between the transmission channel is checked by means of correlation matrix based intersection prevention approach by monitoring the neighbor node. Then, the data packets were forwarded in an efficient manner without any intersection between the frames. The performance analysis is estimated in terms of network lifetime, packet delivery ratio, packet collision; inter node collision, throughput, and end-to-end delay.

Energy Minimization Algorithm for Estimation of Clock Skew and Reception Window Selection in Wireless Networks.

The synchronization of time between devices is one of the more important and challenging problems in wireless networks. We discuss the problem of maximization of the probability of receiving a message from a device using a limited listening time window to minimize energy utilization. We propose a solution to two important problems in wireless networks of battery-powered devices: a method of establishing a connection with a device that has been disconnected from the system for a long time and developed unknown skew and also two approaches to follow-up clock synchronization using the confidence interval method. We start with the analysis of measurements of clock skew. The algorithms are evaluated using extensive simulations and we discuss the selection of parameters balancing between minimizing the energy utilization and maximizing the probability of reception of the message. We show that the selection of a time window of growing size requires less energy to receive a packet than using the same size of time window repeated multiple times. The shifting of reception windows can further decrease the energy cost if lower packet reception probability is acceptable. We also propose and evaluate an algorithm scaling the reception window size to the interval between the packet transmission.

Interference-Based QoS and Capacity Analysis of VANETs for Safety Applications

Whether the current IEEE 802.11p communication system meets the stringent quality of service (QoS) requirements for safety applications or not is still not very clear. Signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) distribution plays a primary role in quantifying the QoS as well as link capacity of IEEE 802.11p in one-dimensional (1-D) highway and two-dimensional (2-D) intersection road. Most of the analytical models based on stochastic geometry assumed ALOHA access to analyze the SINR distribution, while few of the works developed the stochastic geometry based model considering CSMA access but derived the SINR distribution utilizing statistical estimator. On the other hand, the current interference based probability analytic model for the SINR distribution limit the 1-D extension to 2-D, due to the very high numerical computational complexity at 2-D. In this paper, we propose an analytic model under more general non-homogeneous Poisson process (NHPP) node distribution, more general channel fading model ( Nakagami ) with path loss, and noise, for the study of QoS and capacity of VANET for BSM based safety applications in both 1-D highway and 2-D intersection road. The proposed model derives QoS and capacity of VANET BSM broadcast through evaluation of SINR distribution using probability theory and ordered statistics, which has much lower computational complexity compared with the unordered statistic model. The proposed model is validated by NS2 simulation and extended to the derivation of other QoS metrics such as packet reception probability, packet reception ratio, and broadcast link capacity, etc. The performance comparisons between 1-D and 2-D are implemented, and the QoS sensitivity analyses regarding the extension to multi-intersection as well as enlarging interference range are discussed.

Packet Reception Probabilities in Vehicular Communications Close to Intersections

Vehicular networks allow vehicles to share information and are expected to be an integral part of future intelligent transportation systems (ITS). To guide and validate the design process, analytical expressions of key performance metrics such as packet reception probabilities and throughput are necessary, in particular for accident-prone scenarios such as intersections. In this paper, we present a procedure to analytically determine the packet reception probability and throughput of a selected link, taking into account the relative increase in the number of vehicles (i.e., possible interferers) close to an intersection. We consider both slotted Aloha and CSMA/CA MAC protocols, and show how the procedure can be used to model different propagation environments of practical relevance. The procedure is validated for a selected set of case studies at low traffic densities.

Observer‐based MPC for NCS with actuator saturation and DoS attacks via interval type‐2 T–S fuzzy model

This study addresses an observer-based model predictive control (MPC) algorithm for a networked control system (NCS) under denial of service (DoS) attacks and actuator saturation via an interval type-2 Takagi–Sugeno (IT2 T–S) fuzzy model. With few studies undertaking the cyber security problems in the research of MPC algorithm, this study considers the data transmission problem when DoS attacks occur. Under DoS attacks, signals in the communication networks will be interfered. The probability of error-free packet reception depends on signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio of the wireless transmission networks. In order to reduce the on-line computation, an off-line fuzzy observer is devised to estimate the system states. Meanwhile, an on-line MPC algorithm is proposed to minimise the performance objective function and obtain the secure model predictive controller gain. Besides, the recursive feasibility is ensured by refreshing the bound of estimation error. Finally, illustrative examples certificate the effectiveness of the presented method.

Analysis of Peak Age of Information in Blocking and Preemptive Queueing Policies in a HARQ-Based Wireless Link

In this letter, we focus on evaluating Peak Age-of-Information (PAoI) in a typical wireless link in which each packet transmission is successful with some probability. The receiver applies a hybrid ARQ (HARQ) scheme such as chase combining to decode each packet. Thus, several transmissions of the same packet lead to a sequence of strictly increasing successful packet reception probabilities. Moreover, the number of transmissions for each packet is limited. In this link, when the packets are generated randomly, we compare two queueing policies at the transmitter, i.e., blocking and preemptive. The former exploits the capability of HARQ to send the packet to the destination sooner, but the latter tries to send the fresher packets to the destination. We derive analytically the average PAoI at both policies and compare them in different situations.

Energy Constrained Optimization for Spreading Factor Allocation in LoRaWAN.

This paper discusses a spreading factor allocation for Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN). Because Long Range (LoRa) is based on chirp spread spectrum that each spreading factor is approximately orthogonal to each other, the performance of LoRaWAN can be enhanced by allocating the spreading factor appropriately to end devices (EDs). Several spreading factor allocation techniques have been reported. Techniques shown in existing studies can improve some characteristics (e.g. throughput or packet reception probability (PRP)); however, there are a few studies that have focused on the energy consumption of the EDs. The LoRa communication offers a low power communication and this enables the improvement of the performance in exchange for the energy consumption. This paper presents a performance improvement technique via spreading factor allocations for LoRaWAN. We define the optimization problem for the spreading factor allocation to maximize the PRP under a constraint for the average energy consumption of all the EDs. It enables for the performance improvement under the constraint of the average energy consumption of all the EDs by solving the problem. This study further develops a method to solve the defined problem based on a distributed genetic algorithm, which is metaheuristics method. Although the techniques shown in the existing studies give the average energy consumption as a result of the performance improvement by the spreading factor allocation, the presented technique can enhance the LoRaWAN performance by allocating the spreading factor to EDs under the constraint for the average energy consumption of all the EDs. Numerical examples validate the effectiveness of the presented technique. The PRP performance of the presented technique is superior to that of the techniques shown in the existing studies despite that the average energy consumption of all the EDs of the presented technique is less than that of the techniques shown in the existing studies.

Optimal Transmission Power Scheduling of Networked Control Systems Via Fuzzy Adaptive Dynamic Programming

This article considers the transmission power scheduling in the control of a linear plant when the plant state is transmitted from a sensor to the controller over a wireless fading channel. The power allocated to these transmissions determines the probability of successful packet reception. This article focuses on investigating how much power should be assigned to transmit the data packet at each time. A new framework of optimal power allocation is established by introducing a cost function, which weighs the control performance and energy cost. First, a necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of the solution to finding an admissible schedule is given. Then, by combining an adaptive dynamic programming technique with fuzzy approximation theory, a new state-dependent scheduling algorithm is proposed to find the optimal power allocation policy. The convergence analysis shows that the proposed power scheduling algorithm can approximate the optimal solution on a compact set with a desired precision. Simulation results are presented to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.

An analytical framework for reliability evaluation of d-dimensional IEEE 802.11 broadcast wireless networks

In this paper, we validate that the deterministic distance-based analytical model can be used to estimate the reliability of one-dimensional (1-D) 802.11 broadcast wireless networks compared with the interference-based analytical model. Therefore, we propose a deterministic distance-based reliability analytical framework for such networks in d-dimensional (d-D, $$d \ge 1$$ ) scenarios. This framework takes into account the fading channel and hidden terminal problem and makes three commonly used reliability metrics able to be resolved, including point-to-point packet reception probability (NRP), packet delivery ratio (PDR), and packet reception ratio (PRR). There are two key factors involved in deducing the effect of hidden terminals. One is to measure the hidden terminal transmission probability during the vulnerable period, which can be calculated based on the approximate solution of the semi-Markov process model capturing the channel contention and the back-off behavior. Another is the challenge to determine the size of the area to which the hidden terminals belong. First, we give a general mathematical expression on the size of the hidden terminal coverage affecting NRP which is an important part of the closed-form solution of NRP/PRR. Second, we adopt the Monte-Carlo method to solve the size of general hidden terminal coverage affecting PDR, making it possible to approximate PDR, as well as control the efficiency and accuracy by constraining the relative error. Finally, we adopt a multi-parameter optimization scheme to find the optimum settings for the network to ensure the quality of service and maximize channel utilization. A series of experimental results show that the framework can be used to access the reliability of 802.11 based d-D broadcast wireless network and pave the way for further optimization.

Random Access Communication for Wireless Control Systems With Energy Harvesting Sensors

In this paper, we study wireless networked control systems in which the sensing devices are powered by energy harvesting. We consider a scenario with multiple plants, where the sensors communicate their measurements to their respective controllers over a shared wireless channel. Due to the shared nature of the medium, sensors transmitting simultaneously can lead to packet collisions. In order to deal with this, we propose the use of random access communication policies and, to this end, we translate the control performance requirements to successful packet reception probabilities. The optimal scheduling decision is to transmit with a certain probability, which is adaptive to channel and battery conditions. Moreover, we provide a stochastic dual method to compute the optimal scheduling solution, which is computed across sensors, with only some of the dual variables needed to be shared between nodes. Furthermore, we also consider asynchronicity in the values of the variables across sensor nodes and provide theoretical guarantees on the stability of the control systems under the proposed random access mechanism. Finally, we provide extensive numerical results that corroborate our claims.

A Packet Reception Probability-Based Reliable Routing Protocol for 3D VANET

In three-dimensional (3D) vehicular ad-hoc network (VANET) scenario, dynamic vehicles, complex node distribution and severe path loss increase the probability of link interruption significantly, which deteriorates the packet reception probability sharply. However, reliability is a crucial issue as efficiency to improve the performance of routing protocol in 3D VANET. In this letter, for the dynamic and multi-level shadowing scenario, we propose a packet reception probability-based reliable routing (PPR) protocol to improve the transmission link reliability. Especially, we introduce a packet reception probability model to characterize the link reliability of 3D network, and the unique characteristics of 3D VANETs are integrated into this model. Then, we formulate the routing decision issue as a constrained multi-objective optimization problem, which attempts to find a link with the highest packet reception probability as the relay link. The simulation results demonstrate that PPR outperforms the existing protocols in the aspects of packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay and throughput.

Fuzzy Logic Based Multi-criteria Intelligent Forward Routing in VANET

Vehicular ad-hoc network have the capability for enhancing the road safety using intelligent transportation system by communicating with each other (V–V) as well as with road side infrastructure unit (V–I) through driver information system and internet access. It becomes more challenging issue in VANET to provide a reliable multi-hop communication, due to high speed of vehicles movement, limited wireless resources, and the lose characteristic of a wireless channel. To overcome the above problem, this paper presents a fuzzy logic based multi-criteria intelligent forward routing protocol. Which is operable in dynamic network condition and compatible with both communication modes like vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure. To select the greedy next node for data forwarding our proposed protocol calculate node stability cost and positive progress value. Here fuzzy logic based multi-criteria has been used to dynamically evaluate the node stability cost for selecting the next hop forward vehicle or road side units (RSUs), for forwarding the data reliably toward the destination. Three parameters, packet reception probability with changes of intra communication distance, speed difference and link expiration time between relay and neighbor vehicles or RSUs has been used to evaluate the weight of node using fuzzy logic. Also positive progress value has been considered to identify the distance with direction of a node from the destination at a particular time. In framework evaluation, an infrastructure-based fuzzy next hop forwarding mechanism has been presented in urban areas. The simulation results has been shown an improvement of performance of the given solution in comparison with existing protocol performance.

Analysis of hidden terminal\u2019s effect on the performance of vehicular ad-hoc networks

Vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs) based on the IEEE 802.11p standard are receiving increasing attention for road safety provisioning. Hidden terminals, however, demonstrate a serious challenge in the performance of VANETs. In this paper, we investigate the effect of hidden terminals on the performance of one hop broadcast communication. The paper formulates an analytical model to analyze the effect of hidden terminals on the performance metrics such as packet reception probability (PRP), packet reception delay (PRD), and packet reception interval (PRI) for the 2-dimensional (2-D) VANET. To verify the accuracy of the proposed model, the analytical model-based results are compared with NS3 simulation results using 2-D highway scenarios. We also compare the analytical results with those from real vehicular network implemented using the commercial vehicle-to-everything (V2X) devices. The analytical results show high correlation with the results of both simulation and real network.

Analytical Investigation of Two Benchmark Resource Allocation Algorithms for LTE-V2V

Short-range wireless technologies will enable vehicles to communicate and coordinate their actions, thus improving people's safety and traffic efficiency. Whereas IEEE 802.11p (and related standards) had been the only practical solution for years, in 2016 a new option was introduced with Release of 14 long-term evolution (LTE), which includes new features to enable direct vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communications. LTE-V2V promises a more efficient use of the channel compared to IEEE 802.11p, thanks to an improved PHY layer and the use of orthogonal resources at the MAC layer. In LTE-V2V, a key role is played by the resource allocation algorithm and increasing efforts are being made to design new solutions to optimize the spatial reuse. In this context, an important aspect still little studied, is therefore that of identifying references that allow, first, to have a perception of the space in which the resource allocation algorithms move and, second, to verify the performance of new proposals. In this paper, we focus on a highway scenario and identify two algorithms to be used as a minimum and maximum reference in terms of the packet reception probability (PRP). The PRP is derived as a function of various parameters that describe the scenario and settings, from the application to the physical layer. Results, obtained both in a simplified Poisson point process scenario and with realistic traffic traces, show that the PRP varies considerably with different algorithms and that there is room for the improvement of current solutions.

Packet Rate Adaptation Protocol Based on Bloom Filter for Hidden Node Avoidance in Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks

Most of the vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs) use the medium access control (MAC) layer of IEEE 802.11p, which is an extension of IEEE 802.11a standard. One of the critical issues with IEEE 802.11 networks is the hidden terminal problem. IEEE 802.11 networks use Request To Send (RTS) and Clear To Send (CTS) mechanism to alleviate the hidden terminal problem. The RTS/CTS mechanism, however, is inapplicable in broadcast communication. Since the safety data in VANET is transmitted over broadcast, the hidden terminal collision is still a critical problem. In this paper, we propose a hidden terminal collision mitigation protocol for broadcast communication of safety data, called Packet Rate Adaptation based on the Bloom filter (PRAB). The protocol derives the optimal packet generation rate as a function of the average number of hidden terminals. To estimate the number of hidden terminals, we introduce a notion of Bloom filter, which piggybacks the neighbor vehicles’ information at a low overhead of packet size. We implemented the proposed protocol and evaluated with various vehicular networks. The simulation results exhibit that the proposed protocol provides 90% or higher packet reception probability even for high vehicle density networks, which correspond to 15% ~24% improvement over the previous protocols considered.

Adaptive beaconing for RSU-based intersection assistance systems: Protocols analysis and enhancement

Current envisaged cooperative vehicular applications require moderate to severe requirements of reliability and latency according to their purpose. Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC)-based applications mainly rely on the periodic exchange of information that under certain circumstances may cause congestion problems on the communication channel obtaining unreliable and outdated information at application level. Adaptive beaconing protocols adapt transmission parameters to different criteria such as the channel load and application requirements to improve the overall performance of the vehicle network. Nevertheless, it has not been determined yet if the information disseminated by these protocols is suitable enough for the implementation of specific applications, e.g., Road Side Unit (RSU)-based Intersection Assistance Systems (IAS) like Intersection Collision Risk Warning (ICRW). In this context, we first analyze the network behavior in a realistic simulated intersection area where probability of packet reception becomes difficult to predict and models become highly complex. In that scenario, we present a critical analysis on the performance of current EU and US decentralized congestion control protocols while their performance is evaluated with respect to tracking accuracies required by Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) applications. Results obtained lead us to conclude that adaptation criteria of beaconing protocols is not able to support different safety applications at the same time, that is, there is a tradeoff in the selection of such criteria between enhancing applications supporting vehicles or infrastructure. In that sense, we discuss and provide novel adaptation criteria (Intersection Assistance State Machine, IASM) to improve the performance of beaconing protocols towards assisting safety RSU-based IAS. Finally, we propose and validate through simulations a novel beaconing protocol (Intersection Assistance Protocol, IAP) that improves performance over studied protocols.

Topology mapping algorithm for 2D and 3D Wireless Sensor Networks based on maximum likelihood estimation

Automation of many sensor network protocols requires maps indicating sensor locations. Physical coordinate based maps capture the physical layout including voids and shapes, but obtaining the required distance values is often not feasible or economical. Alternative is to use topological maps based only on connectivity Information. Due to lack of physical distances, they are not faithful representatives of the physical layout. Here we present Maximum Likelihood-Topology Maps (ML-TM) that provide a more accurate physical representation, by using the probability of signal reception, an easily measurable parameter that is sensitive to the distance. Approach is illustrated using a mobile robot that listens to signals transmitted by sensor nodes and maps the packet reception probability to a coordinate system using a signal receiving probability function. ML-TM is an intermediate map between exact physical maps and hop- based topology coordinates. Results show that ML-TM algorithm generates maps for various network shapes with voids/obstacles in different environmental conditions with an error less than 7%. Performance of the algorithm in 3D sensor networks is also illustrated.

Comments on “Interference-Based Capacity Analysis of Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks”

A new effective interference-based capacity model was proposed for vehicular ad hoc network safety message broadcast scenario in M. Ni et al. ( Commun. Lett. , vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 621–624, Apr. 2015). This letter is a reconsideration and extension of the model in Ni et al. . First, we point out that the analysis in Ni et al. is incomplete and show a new derivation of the node transmission probability and the SIR distribution accounting for the impact of asynchronous timing of hidden terminals and all possible interference occurrence cases. Second, the analysis is extended to the derivation of other important quality of service metrics, such as packet reception probability, packet reception ratio, and transmission capacity. The proposed analysis is cross validated by MATLAB, PYTHON, and NS2 simulations.