Transmission Of Plant Viruses Research Articles

Interview with Dr. Peter McGrath, Coordinator of the InterAcademy Partnership (IAP) and Co-coordinator of the UNESCO-TWAS Science Policy/Science Diplomacy programme

Dr. Peter McGrath obtained his BSc (honours) in Agricultural Zoology from the University of Glasgow, UK, and followed this with a PhD from the University of Leeds, UK, in 1989. His 10-year research career focused on the insect transmission of plant viruses and included postdoctoral positions at the Scottish Crop Research Institute (now the James Hutton Institute) as well as Purdue University and the University of Arizona in the USA. Returning to the UK in 1997, he established his own business as a freelance journalist focusing on agricultural, environmental and scientific issues. The experience he gained in communicating scientific issues to non-specialist audiences made him an ideal fit for his first position at The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) – as writer/editor in the Public Information Office. During this time, he worked on the TWAS Newsletter, TWAS Annual Report, and edited seven volumes of the TWAS-UNDP case study series ‘Sharing Innovative Experiences’. From 2006, Peter began overseeing the implementation of TWAS’s core programmes, including South-South fellowships and other exchange schemes, research grants and various prizes, as well as the activities of the Organization for Women in Science for the Developing World (OWSD). During this time, he has helped expand these programmes as well as developing new partnerships and activities, including the EU-funded EuroAfrica-ICT project (2009-2012), and acting as the liaison person for TWAS’s involvement in the Solar Radiation Management Governance Initiative (SRMGI).

Aphid Viruses: A Brief View of a Long History.

Aphids are common agricultural pests with a wide range of hosts from agriculture to forestry plants. As known, aphids also serve as the major vectors to transmit plant viruses. Although numerous studies have focused on interactions between aphids and plant viruses, little is known about the aphid viruses, i.e., the insect viruses that are infectious to aphids. In the past four decades, several aphid viruses have been identified in diverse aphid species. In this review, we present a brief view of the aphid pathogenic viruses from several aspects, including classification of aphid viruses and characters of the viral genome, integration of viral sequences in host genomes, infection symptoms and influence on aphids, as well as host range and transmission modes. Taken together, these studies have increased our understanding of the rarely known aphid viruses, and will potentially contribute to the development of new strategies for controlling aphid populations.

Effect of Different Organic and Chemical Compounds on Population Density of Trialeurodes vaporariorum Westwood and Some Secondary Metabolites of Bean Plant

Introduction: Greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum Westwood (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), is a serious pest of a wide range of plants, such as common bean, cucumber, tomato, pepper, lettuce, etc, in both field and greenhouse production. It typically feeds on the underside of leaves, sucking phloem sap from the plant, which causes both direct damage, by overall weakening the plant and reducing yield, and indirect damage, by excreting honeydew, on which sooty mold grows, as well as transmission of several plant viruses. The widespread use of insecticides to control T. vaporariorum has resulted in developing resistance to the insecticides and affected human’s health and safety. The utilization of plant extract and elicitors is an environmentally safe method that is used in the control recently. Therefore, alternative control strategies are required to minimize the harmful effects of insecticides. In order to control this pest, environmentally friendly methods, especially of plant origin are recently considered by researchers. For this regard, the effect of some organic compounds including methanolic and n-hexanic extract of walnut’s husk or dill’s seeds and salicylic acid, individually and in combination with spirotetramat on population density of greenhouse whitefly’s nymphs and some secondary compounds of bean plant were investigated.Materials and methods: Seeds of common bean, Phaseulus vulgaris L. (Berloty cultivar) were sown and grown in 15-cm-plastic pots in a greenhouse at 25 ± 3°C, 50 ± 10% RH, and a natural photoperiod. For the experiments, potted bean plants at 6-8 leaf stage, highly infested with T. vaporariorum nymphs, were sprayed with 12 different treatments, including: (1) spirotetramat (SP), (2) methanolic extract of walnut husk (MW), (3) n-hexanic extract of walnut husk (NW), (4) methanolic extract of dill seed (MD), (5) n-hexanic extract of dill seed (ND, (6) salicylic acid (SA), (7) spirotetramat in combination with salicylic acid (SP+SA), (8) spirotetramat in combination with methanolic extract of dill seed (SP+MD), (9) spirotetramat in combination with methanolic extract of walnut husk (SP+MW), (10) spirotetramat in combination with n-hexanic extract of dill seed (SP+ND), (11) spirotetramat in combination with n-hexanic extract of walnut husk (SP+NW), and (12) water as a control (CO). After five days, the population density of T. vaporariorum nymphs on bean plants leaves was recorded. Furthermore, the effects of tested treatments on the total phenol and flavonoid contents of bean plants were evaluated. For this reason, dried leaves (5 g) from each treatment were used for the preparation of extracts. The total phenolics of the extracts were determined using the Folin - Ciocalteu reagent. Sample and standard readings were made using a spectrophotometer (Lambda 45-UV/Visible) at 765 nm against the reagent blank. Furthermore, the aluminum chloride colorimetric method was used for determination of the total flavonoid content of treatments. For total flavonoid determination, quercetin was used to make the standard calibration curve. The absorbance was read using a spectrophotometer (Lambda 45-UV/Visible) in the wavelengths of 415 nm. Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA using SPSS 23.0 software. Comparison of means for nymph density using SNK (Student-Newman-Keuls) multi-range test and comparison of means for secondary chemical compositions using Tukey's test at probability level five Percentage occurred.Results and Discussion: Results showed that the population density of greenhouse whitefly and the secondary metabolites of plant were significantly affected by the tested treatments. The lowest number of whitefly’s nymphs was on spirotetramat and spirotetramat in combination with methanolic extract of dill seed and the highest number was on control. Total phenolic contents ranged from 58.96 to 114.07 mg g-1 dry weight on different treatments, which the highest and lowest amount of it was obtained in spirotetramat in combination with methanolic extract of dill seed and spirotetramat in combination with n-hexanic extract of walnut husk, respectively. The highest amount of total flavonoid content of bean plants was in spirotetramat in combination with salicylic acid. The results of the present study showed that the density of greenhouse whitefly population in spirotetramate treatment was lower than other treatments but there was no significant difference with the combined treatments and methanolic extract of walnut husk. Also, all the treatments compared to the control significantly changed the population density of this pest and increased the amount of total phenolic compound in bean plant. Therefore, these compounds, especially the methanolic extract of walnut husk, can be used in integrated management programs of this pest.Conclusion: This research could provide valuable information for control of T. vaporariorum in other plants like ornamental plants in the field and greenhouse and thus can be useful for the production of healthy and organic crops. So it can be used in the IPM programs of this pest.Keywords: Salicylic acid, Plant extract, Total flavonoid, Total phenol, Whitefly

Roles of Bacterial Symbionts in Transmission of Plant Virus by Hemipteran Vectors

The majority of plant viruses are transmitted by hemipteran insects. Bacterial symbionts in hemipteran hosts have a significant impact on the host life, physiology and ecology. Recently, the involvement of bacterial symbionts in hemipteran vector-virus and vector-plant interactions has been documented. Thus, the exploitation and manipulation of bacterial symbionts have great potential for plant viral disease control. Herein, we review the studies performed on the impact of symbiotic bacteria on plant virus transmission, including insect-bacterial symbiont associations, the role of these bacterial symbionts in viral acquisition, stability and release during viral circulation in insect bodies, and in viral vertical transmission. Besides, we prospect further studies aimed to understand tripartite interactions of the virus-symbiotic microorganisms-insect vector.

HEMIPTERAN-TRANSMITTED PLANT VIRUSES: RESEARCH PROGRESS AND CONTROL STRATEGIES

<List><ListItem><ItemContent> • Research findings on the insect-virus interaction </ItemContent></ListItem><ListItem><ItemContent> • Influences of immunity, feeding and microorganisms on virus transmission </ItemContent></ListItem><ListItem><ItemContent> • Latest applications for virus control strategies </ItemContent></ListItem></List> About 80% of plant viruses are transmitted by specific insect vectors, especially hemipterans with piercing-sucking mouthparts. Many virus-transmitting insects are also important crop pests that cause considerable losses in crop production. This review summarizes the latest research findings on the interactions between plant viruses and insect vectors and analyzes the key factors affecting insect transmission of plant viruses from the perspectives of insect immunity, insect feeding, and insect symbiotic microorganisms. Additionally, by referring to the latest applications for blocking the transmission of animal viruses, potential control strategies to prevent the transmission of insect-vectored plant viruses using RNAi technology, gene editing technology, and CRISPR/Cas9+ gene-driven technology are discussed.

Monitoring of Aphids Species in the Potato Crop From “Ţara Bârsei”

With a high capacity for adaptation and colonization in many ecological systems, including crops, aphids are interesting models of study. Aphids can cause damages to potato plants by inducing feeding injuries and transmitting plant viruses. In order to evaluate the fluctuations of aphids in potato crop, an investigation was carried out in area of Ţara Bârsei from Braşov (Romania), using 56 years long time series data. To identify the aphid species and to assess the relevance of their structure and abundance, between the years 1963 and 2018, a study of these pests in potato crop was conducted. Aphid monitoring was carried out using the method of yellow water traps, suitable for studies on aphid population structure, abundance and flight activity. Species were identified using keys for identification of alatae aphids. Great differences were observed on aphid structure, abundance, distribution and flight activity over the studied years. For seed potato crop, the greatest interest was presented by Myzus persicae species, the main viral vector from this crop. The monitoring of aphid populations, the analysis of the abundance of aphid species contribute to the knowledge of the activity and evolution of the aphid fauna specific to potato crops over long periods of time.

Epidemiological and ecological consequences of virus manipulation of host and vector in plant virus transmission.

Many plant viruses are transmitted by insect vectors. Transmission can be described as persistent or non-persistent depending on rates of acquisition, retention, and inoculation of virus. Much experimental evidence has accumulated indicating vectors can prefer to settle and/or feed on infected versus noninfected host plants. For persistent transmission, vector preference can also be conditional, depending on the vector's own infection status. Since viruses can alter host plant quality as a resource for feeding, infection potentially also affects vector population dynamics. Here we use mathematical modelling to develop a theoretical framework addressing the effects of vector preferences for landing, settling and feeding-as well as potential effects of infection on vector population density-on plant virus epidemics. We explore the consequences of preferences that depend on the host (infected or healthy) and vector (viruliferous or nonviruliferous) phenotypes, and how this is affected by the form of transmission, persistent or non-persistent. We show how different components of vector preference have characteristic effects on both the basic reproduction number and the final incidence of disease. We also show how vector preference can induce bistability, in which the virus is able to persist even when it cannot invade from very low densities. Feedbacks between plant infection status, vector population dynamics and virus transmission potentially lead to very complex dynamics, including sustained oscillations. Our work is supported by an interactive interface https://plantdiseasevectorpreference.herokuapp.com/. Our model reiterates the importance of coupling virus infection to vector behaviour, life history and population dynamics to fully understand plant virus epidemics.

Modelling interference between vectors of non-persistently transmitted plant viruses to identify effective control strategies.

Aphids are the primary vector of plant viruses. Transient aphids, which probe several plants per day, are considered to be the principal vectors of non-persistently transmitted (NPT) viruses. However, resident aphids, which can complete their life cycle on a single host and are affected by agronomic practices, can transmit NPT viruses as well. Moreover, they can interfere both directly and indirectly with transient aphids, eventually shaping plant disease dynamics. By means of an epidemiological model, originally accounting for ecological principles and agronomic practices, we explore the consequences of fertilization and irrigation, pesticide deployment and roguing of infected plants on the spread of viral diseases in crops. Our results indicate that the spread of NPT viruses can be i) both reduced or increased by fertilization and irrigation, depending on whether the interference is direct or indirect; ii) counter-intuitively increased by pesticide application and iii) reduced by roguing infected plants. We show that a better understanding of vectors' interactions would enhance our understanding of disease transmission, supporting the development of disease management strategies.

Analysis of a High-Dimensional Mathematical Model for Plant Virus Transmission with Continuous and Impulsive Roguing Control

Roguing and replanting are the most common strategies to control plant diseases and pests. How to build the mathematical models of plant virus transmission and consider the impact of roguing and replanting strategies on plant virus eradication is of great practical significance. In the present paper, we propose the mathematical models for plant virus transmission with continuous and impulsive roguing control. For the model with continuous control strategies, the threshold values for the existences and stabilities of multiple equilibria have been given, and the effect of roguing strategies on the threshold values is also addressed. Furthermore, the model with impulsive roguing control tactics is proposed, and the existence and stability of the plant-only and disease-free periodic solutions of the model are investigated by calculating several threshold values. Moreover, when selecting the design control strategy to minimize the threshold, we systematically analyze the existence of the optimal times of roguing infected plants within a replanting cycle, which is of great significance to the design and optimization of the prevention and control strategy of plant virus transmission. Finally, numerical investigations are given to reveal the main conclusions, and the biological implications of the main results are briefly discussed in the last section.

Plant Viruses Can Alter Aphid-Triggered Calcium Elevations in Infected Leaves.

Alighting aphids probe a new host plant by intracellular test punctures for suitability. These induce immediate calcium signals that emanate from the punctured sites and might be the first step in plant recognition of aphid feeding and the subsequent elicitation of plant defence responses. Calcium is also involved in the transmission of non-persistent plant viruses that are acquired by aphids during test punctures. Therefore, we wanted to determine whether viral infection alters calcium signalling. For this, calcium signals triggered by aphids were imaged on transgenic Arabidopsis plants expressing the cytosolic FRET-based calcium reporter YC3.6-NES and infected with the non-persistent viruses cauliflower mosaic (CaMV) and turnip mosaic (TuMV), or the persistent virus, turnip yellows (TuYV). Aphids were placed on infected leaves and calcium elevations were recorded by time-lapse fluorescence microscopy. Calcium signal velocities were significantly slower in plants infected with CaMV or TuMV and signal areas were smaller in CaMV-infected plants. Transmission tests using CaMV-infected Arabidopsis mutants impaired in pathogen perception or in the generation of calcium signals revealed no differences in transmission efficiency. A transcriptomic meta-analysis indicated significant changes in expression of receptor-like kinases in the BAK1 pathway as well as of calcium channels in CaMV- and TuMV-infected plants. Taken together, infection with CaMV and TuMV, but not with TuYV, impacts aphid-induced calcium signalling. This suggests that viruses can modify plant responses to aphids from the very first vector/host contact.

RNAi Targets in Agricultural Pest Insects: Advancements, Knowledge Gaps, and IPM

The unprecedented target-specificity of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), due to its sequence-specific mode of action, puts dsRNA at the forefront of biosafe insecticide technology. Since 2007, sensitive target genes have been identified in numerous crop pest insects, with an end goal of applying RNA interference (RNAi) in pest management. Key RNAi targets identified include genes involved in (1) feeding and digestion, (2) production of dsRNases, (3) resistance to insecticides and plant allelochemicals, (4) reproductive fitness, and (5) transmission of plant viruses. Despite the advances, there remain critical knowledge gaps in each of these areas. Particular emphasis must be placed on ensuring RNAi's compatibility with integrated pest management (IPM), via further identification of molecular targets that reduce crop damage while sustaining pest (host) populations for highly specialized biocontrol agents, the latter representing a core pillar of IPM.

Effects of heat stress on virus transmission and virus-mediated apoptosis in whitefly Bemisia tabaci.

Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV), a plant DNA virus of the genus Begomovirus, is transmitted by whiteflies of the Bemisia tabaci species complex in a persistent manner. Our previous study indicated that activation of the apoptosis pathway in whiteflies could facilitate TYLCV accumulation and transmission. Considering that temperature change can influence the spread of insect-borne plant viruses, we focused on plant virus induced-apoptosis to investigate the underlying mechanism of temperature regulation on plant virus transmission via an insect vector. We found that heat stress (40°C) on whiteflies could facilitate TYLCV accumulation and increase transmission to tomato plants. Despite upregulation of caspase-1 and caspase-3 gene expression, heat stress failed to induce an increase in the activation of cleaved caspase-3 and DNA fragmentation in TYLCV-infected whiteflies. However, our data failed to determine the role of heat stress in apoptosis modulation of insect-plant virus interplay while still providing clues to understand insect vectors and their transmitted plant viruses.

Silver nanoparticles as a viricidal agent to inhibit plant-infecting viruses and disrupt their acquisition and transmission by their aphid vector.

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are a potentially effective tool for preventing viral plant diseases. This study was carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of AgNPs for managing bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV) disease in faba bean plants from the plant-virus-vector interaction side. AgNPs were evaluated as foliar protective and curative agents. In addition, the effect of AgNPs on virus acquisition and transmission by its vector aphid was investigated. The results indicated that AgNPs exhibited curative viricidal activity and were able to inactivate BYMV when applied 48 hours after virus inoculation. The occurrence of disease was prevented using an AgNP concentration as low as 100 mg L-1, whereas virus infection was completely inhibited when plants were preventatively treated with AgNPs at a concentration of to 200 mg L-1 24 h before virus inoculation. AgNPs proved to be highly bio-reactive, binding to viral particles and suppressing their replication and accumulation within plant tissues. Moreover, AgNPs, at all concentrations tested, were found to upregulate the pathogenesis-related gene PR-1 and induce the production of defense-related oxidizing enzymes in treated plants. Exposure of aphids to AgNPs-treated plants before virus acquisition reduced BYMV acquisition and transmission efficiency by 40.65 to 100% at 24 h post-application, depending on the AgNP dosage. At 10 days after treatment, virus acquisition was reduced by 36.82% and 79.64% upon exposure to AgNPs at a concentration of 250 and 300 mg L-1, respectively. These results suggest that AgNPs have curative viricidal activity due to targeting the virus coat protein and affecting virus-vector interactions. Accordingly, AgNPs may contribute to alleviating the natural disease and virus transmission under field conditions. This is the first report on the activity of nanomaterials against plant virus acquisition and transmission by insects.

Phytophagous mites transmitting plant viruses: update and perspectives

Phytophagous mites transmitting plant viruses: update and perspectives

Effect of aphid biology and morphology on plant virus transmission.

Aphids severely affect crop production by transmitting many plant viruses. Viruses are obligate intracellular pathogens that mostly depend on vectors for their transmission and survival. A majority of economically important plant viruses are transmitted by aphids. They transmit viruses either persistently (circulative or non-circulative) or non-persistently. Plant virus transmission by insects is a process that has evolved over time and is strongly influenced by insect morphological features and biology. Over the past century, a large body of research has provided detailed knowledge of the molecular processes underlying virus-vector interactions. In this review, we discuss how aphid biology and morphology can affect plant virus transmission. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Responses to predation risk cues and alarm pheromones affect plant virus transmission by an aphid vector.

Herbivores assess predation risk in their environment by identifying visual, chemical, and tactile predator cues. Detection of predator cues can induce risk-avoidance behaviors in herbivores that affect feeding, dispersal, and host selection in ways that minimize mortality and reproductive costs. For herbivores that transmit plant pathogens, including many aphids, changes in herbivore behavior in response to predator cues may also affect pathogen spread. However, few studies have assessed how aphid behavioral responses to different types of predator cues affect pathogen transmission. Here, we conducted greenhouse experiments to assess whether responses of pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) to predation risk and alarm pheromone (E-β-Farnesene), an aphid alarm signal released in response to predation risk, affected transmission of Pea enation mosaic virus (PEMV). We exposed A. pisum individuals to risk cues, and quantified viral titer in aphids and pea (Pisum sativum) host plants across several time periods. We also assessed how A. pisum responses to risk cues affected aphid nutrition, reproduction, and host selection. We show that exposure to predator cues and alarm pheromone significantly reduced PEMV acquisition and inoculation. Although vectors avoided hosts with predator cues, predator cues did not alter vector reproduction or reduce nutrient acquisition. Overall, these results suggest that non-consumptive effects of predators may indirectly decrease the spread of plant pathogens by altering vector behavior in ways that reduce vector competence and pathogen transmission efficiency.

Efficacy of buprofezin, pyriproxyfen and spirotetramat against Bemisia tabaci MEAM1 nymphal field populations in Florida

The whitefly, Bemisia tabaci MEAM1 (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) is a major pest of vegetable crops in the USA, causing yield losses through transmission of plant viruses and induction of plant disorders. Irregular ripening of tomato and silvering of squash leaves are whitefly-induced plant disorders associated with B. tabaci nymphal feeding. Insecticides applied to manage B. tabaci nymphs and these plant disorders include insect growth regulators (IGRs) and lipid biosynthesis inhibitors. Eleven B. tabaci MEAM1 field populations were collected from vegetables and weeds in south Florida in 2019–2020 to assess the efficacy of nymphal insecticides using a maximum dose bioassay. A susceptible laboratory colony of B. tabaci MEAM1 and a colony of B. tabaci MED were also tested. Among the field populations, spirotetramat was the least efficient product for reducing adult emergence and pyriproxyfen and buprofezin were both highly effective. In contrast to the field populations, the lab MED colony was highly susceptible to spirotetramat while pyriproxyfen and buprofezin demonstrated low efficacy for reducing adult emergence. The results indicate that tolerance to spirotetramat may be present in field populations of B. tabaci.

A review of the management of Aphis fabae Scopoli (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

The black-bean aphid Aphis fabae Scopoli is a serious agricultural threat spreaded almost worldwide. It threatens more than 200 host plant species and causes several damages through sucking sap, injuring leaves, the excretion of honeydew -inducing the development of sooty mould- and the transmission of plant viruses. Chemical aphicides are the most approach used to control A. fabae. Nevertheless, their extensive use has led to serious problems concerning human health and environment. These drawbacks led to apply eco-friendly strategies based on entomopahtogenic fungi, natural enemies and plants to manage the pest. In this paper, we review the biological control of A. fabae with special reference to management using plant extracts. Many plants belonging to several families are opted to control A. fabae. Several parts of these plants in particular leaves, stems and peels are used to eradicate it. Aqueous and alcoholic extracts are the most used forms. The mode of action of the major compounds of botanicals is through stomach or/and nerve poisoning.

Analysis of the Role of Bradysia impatiens (Diptera: Sciaridae) as a Vector Transmitting Peanut Stunt Virus on the Model Plant Nicotiana benthamiana.

Bradysia species, commonly known as fungus gnats, are ubiquitous in greenhouses, nurseries of horticultural plants, and commercial mushroom houses, causing significant economic losses. Moreover, the insects from the Bradysia genus have a well-documented role in plant pathogenic fungi transmission. Here, a study on the potential of Bradysia impatiens to acquire and transmit the peanut stunt virus (PSV) from plant to plant was undertaken. Four-day-old larvae of B. impatiens were exposed to PSV-P strain by feeding on virus-infected leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana and then transferred to healthy plants in laboratory conditions. Using the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), real-time PCR (RT-qPCR), and digital droplet PCR (RT-ddPCR), the PSV RNAs in the larva, pupa, and imago of B. impatiens were detected and quantified. The presence of PSV genomic RNA strands as well as viral coat protein in N. benthamiana, on which the viruliferous larvae were feeding, was also confirmed at the molecular level, even though the characteristic symptoms of PSV infection were not observed. The results have shown that larvae of B. impatiens could acquire the virus and transmit it to healthy plants. Moreover, it has been proven that PSV might persist in the insect body transstadially. Although the molecular mechanisms of virion acquisition and retention during insect development need further studies, this is the first report on B. impatiens playing a potential role in plant virus transmission.

Management of the Wheat Curl Mite and Wheat Streak Mosaic Virus With Insecticides on Spring and Winter Wheat.

The wheat curl mite (WCM, Aceria tosichella, Keifer) is an eriophyid mite species complex that causes damage to cereal crops in the Northern Great Plains by feeding damage and through the transmission of plant viruses, such as wheat streak mosaic virus. Insecticide treatments were evaluated in the greenhouse and field for efficacy at managing the WCM complex on wheat. Treatments tested were carbamates, organophosphates, pyrethroids, a neonicotinoid seed treatment, mite growth inhibitors, and Organic Materials Review Institute–approved biocontrols, soaps, and oils. Treatment with carbamates, organophosphates, and pyrethroids decreased WCM in greenhouse trials compared with untreated controls 14 days after infestation. The seed treatment, mite growth inhibitors, and organic pesticides did not reduce WCM populations effectively and consistently. The timing of application was tested using a sulfur solution as the experimental treatment. Treating plants with sulfur seven days after mite infestation reduced mites compared with the untreated control. In contrast, prophylactically applied sulfur and sulfur applied 14 days after mite infestation were not effective. When tested under field conditions with plots infested with viruliferous mites, there was no yield difference detected between untreated control plots and plots sprayed with insecticides. Select carbamates, organophosphates, and pyrethroids have a potential for use in greenhouse mite management when appropriate.