Military Art Research Articles

Становление категории чести как основы русского военного искусства: культурно-исторический анализ

The paper considers the system of relations between officers of the Russian army, based on the defining ethical category of honor, which becomes a direct reflection of the military art of the Russian army. At the heart of military art is a person who determines the rules of behavior and is a direct subject of activity. The history of Russia has been determined in such a way that the honor of the officer becomes an absolute value, which allows the officers to establish themselves as a special estate that has privileges in the state gained through the service of Russia. The basis of this is the policy of Peter I, aimed at creating a regular army. The Table of Ranks formed by Peter I allowed to survive two hundred years of the Russian Empire and became the basis of relations. Historical examples allow us to talk about the importance of moral values in the implementation of military operations. The officers remain faithful to the oath and banner, realizing their responsibility for the defense of the state. The study is based on the methodological principles of hermeneutics, in the framework of which a new approach has been rearranged, consisting in the analysis of textual sources through the prism of ethical knowledge.

Evaluation of actions efficiency of mobile combat robots by methods of mass-service theory

The article confirms that at the present stage of the development of domestic military science, the simulation of military operations is an important tool for predicting the possible results of a military conflict with the subsequent development of recommendations for its planning and management. It is determined that other mathematical methods provide ample opportunity to solve particular problems in the implementation of the principles of military art. Using various mathematical methods and electronic computer technology, it is possible to develop quantitative recommendations for making decisions in various combat situations.The possibility of using queuing systems techniques for modeling the combat operations of mobile combat robots is shown. The use of such techniques made it possible to obtain an analytical description of the final probabilities for an incompletely accessible queuing system and to expand the possibilities of taking into account the conditions for fulfilling the combat tasks of military units equipped with mobile combat robots. For this purpose, a model is described and considered that describes the battle when the firing is conducted on the observed targets and, in the event of a target hit, the fire is instantly transferred to the unaffected one. This model is illustrated by a functional diagram that clearly shows the work on the targets of five of the same type of mobile combat robots. In this case, the identification of targets is carried out by an exponential law with a function of distributing the service time of the target and the average intensity of their detection and destruction.The characteristics of the efficiency of the queuing system in a stationary (steady state) mode, that is, with an unlimitedly growing time of its operation, are determined. Two coefficients have also been introduced that will characterize the relationship between the duration of the strike phase and the time of the entire process of serving the target. Based on the research, for example, the corresponding calculations were carried out and the boundaries of the possible use of a group of mobile combat robots, consisting of five units, for the military unit were outlined. The workload of each machine and, accordingly, the efficiency of the unit as a whole are determined, recommendations are given on their quantitative composition.

Досвід оборонного планування в НАТО, заснованого на спроможності військ (сил)

Russia's aggression against Ukraine and the scale of contemporary military threats require from the state bring its defense and defense planning system to the requirements of modern military art considering the experience of advanced NATO member states. In order to achieve the above, it is necessary to increase the effectiveness of defense planning in the Armed Forces and its other components of the defense force based on the Assessing and Developing Capability System to achieve Strategic goals of Defense reform and come closer to the standards of NATO member states.The purpose of the article is to find acceptable methodological approaches in the implementation of NATO Member States' best practices in defense planning based on the Assessing and Developing Capability System and further implementation in the Armed Forces of Ukraine and other Defense Forces, improving the effectiveness of Defense planning based on ADCS for further develop them according to the principles and standards adopted in the armies of NATO member states.The Capability-Based Defense Planning (CBDP) process in the Alliance is a fundamental means of developing the necessary capabilities, building them in a timely manner to achieve the desired level. The high level of CBDP effectiveness in NATO is a prerequisite for achieving the political, military and resource benefits that NATO member states expect. Most NATO member states, with implementing the CBDP, address not only the Alliance's needs, but also develop their own armed forces. However, some countries with a small Armed Forces are planning an Armed Forces development that addresses only NATO needs within the CBDP.Thus, a distinctive feature of the CBDP process in NATO is that each member state of the Alliance has its own CBDP system. The organization and implementation of which are influenced by the features of the economic structure of the state, adopted in it the system of forecasting and planning development; conditions and national traditions and interests, etc. And this requires the harmonization (integration) of national interests and plans of NATO development with NATO defense planning.

The Russian Edition of Johann Jacobi von Wallhausen’s »Kriegskunst zu Fuß« (1649): The History of A Failure?

Abstract The article deals with the history of the »Uchenie i khitrost’ ratnogo stroeniia pekhotnykh liudeĭ« – the first Russian book on military art issued in print in Moscow in 1649. Being a full and exact translation of the »Kriegskunst zu Fuß« by Johann Jacobi von Wallhausen (1615), the »Uchenie« has for a long time been recognized by historians as the first Russian effective drill manual which played an important role in the modernization of infantry tactics and military training. However, the use of the book for and during drill sessions could not be inferred by existing sources. Wallhausen’s text was too voluminous and comprehensive in comparison with contemporary drill manuals and could scarcely be understood by uneducated Russian readers. Tactical formations prescribed by Wallhausen were outdated and not suitable for the conditions prevailing in the Eastern European warfare of the mid-17th century. As a result, the book considered as being quite important for Russian culture had no value for military developments of the time.

Деякі аспекти розвитку форм і способів застосування Збройних Сил України для відсічі збройної агресії в сучасних умовах

The protection of the National interests of Ukraine is the main task before the military-political leaders of the country. An important place in the defense of the country is the development of forms and methods of use of the Armed Forces to repel armed aggression in modern conditions. Contemporary military conflicts are increasingly gaining a "hybrid" character.The purpose of the article is to present views on the development of forms and methods of use of the Armed Forces of Ukraine to repel armed aggression in the present conditions (based on the analysis of the domestic legislation, the governing documents of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine, the Armed Forces of Ukraine, publications on the issue, the experience of conducting an anti-terrorist operation (Joint Operations) in the east of Ukraine).In 2018, the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine approved the Doctrine of Use of the State Defense Forces (hereinafter the Doctrine).Scientific research has shown that the Doctrine in its essence, theoretical provisions, content is an important step forward in the further development of national martial arts. Undoubtedly that national military art in the face of Russian aggression needs its further and continuous development and improvement. The Doctrine mainly provides the forms and methods of use of troops (forces) of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, their peculiarities inherent in the conditions in Ukraine in connection with the armed aggression of the Russian Federation.At the same time, the Doctrine contains provisions that contradict certain norms of domestic law, other normative legal acts and the theory of martial arts. Today it is necessary to continue to work on its improvement and development taking into account the available analytical material.

Обґрунтування науково-методичних підходів до розроблення організаційної структури Збройних Сил України за стандартами НАТО

Following the Constitution and laws of Ukraine, the country has determined the basic vector of further development of the foreign policy of the state - integration into the Euro-Atlantic collective security system.At present one of the main tasks of the state is to improve the organizational structure of the Armed Forces of Ukraine to the new conditions of integration processes before joining NATO. Adjustment of the existing organizational structure of the Armed Forces will require the application of appropriate scientific approaches.The purpose of the article is to substantiate methodological approaches to determining the organizational structure of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. This must meet, on the one hand, the basic principles and standards of NATO, and on the other hand, the requirements of modern military art, based on an analysis of the experience of warfare in the east.One of the main stages of scientific research is to justify the method of choosing the organizational structure of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. This study uses the method of Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP).The results of the study show:- the organizational structure of the Armed Forces significantly influences their combat capability, the system of military control and the organization of comprehensive security;- the main criteria for combat effectiveness of the Armed Forces could be:1) terms of deployment of troops (forces) of operational-tactical and operational-strategic levels;2) terms of readiness of the military control system and comprehensive security system;3) state territorial defense readiness and state air defense system reliability;- the most rational organizational structure of the Armed Forces may be a structure that includes:1) joint operational commands as the main governing body of the operational-strategic grouping of troops (forces);2) army corps (or divisions) as structures of operational and tactical level;3) territorial commands as bodies managing the territorial defense system;4) the state's Air Defense System led by the Air Force Command.

Wargaming as a Form of Historical Simulation

Introduction. Wargames are an ancient invention of humankind. A new type of wargames was made in the 19th century. Further it went through the evolution from a military application to historical simulation that can be used as a mathematical model in researching some issues of historical science. Methods. The authors base the research on the tradition of “cliometry” and “quantitative history”, which apply the following methods: variative analysis, method of average, and statistical analysis. Analysis. The paper presents the describtion of the main stages of wargames’ evolution and their influence on military arts and historical science. The authors consider the most important transformations: from entertaining board games to practical military guides and further to applied historical studies. The article describes the principals of creating such games and the influence of science subject area on their rules. The paper shows the boundaries of application of this method. The authors highlight advantages and disadvantages of game simulation and its practical potential as an auxiliary historical discipline. The paper also provides short analyses of the main monographs. The authors give examples of wargames that have played an important role in the development of game simulation, describe the main contemporary types of wargames, and give the criteria of historical accuracy and analytical potential. Results. Modern wargames allow us to make any military historical research more impersonal and measured. The researcher can adjust the rules more flexibly and determine the science subject borders. American researchers outlined the main principles of self-creating wargames for testing some hypothesis suggested by historians.

ПИТАННЯ ВОЄННОГО МИСТЕЦТВА У ПРАЦЯХ ВІЙСЬКОВИХ ТЕОРЕТИКІВ МИНУЛОГО: ГЕНРІХ ЖОМІНІ

The article considers the main aspects of military theoretical legacy of the XIX century military theorist Baron Antoine Jomini who proved a necessity of military art theory and set its fundamentals based on Enlightenment era wars’ experiences. Jomini’s approach to classification of wars, defining of war aims, formulation of the most important preconditions of military system building, views on military historical studying methodology, formulated and firstly introduced definitions and terms haven’t lost their value till nowadays.

Hybrid warfare: a new word in military art or the well forgotten new?

The author examines the aspect of one of the military strategies – the so-called “hybrid warfare”. Analysis is conducted on the key components of “hybrid” actions. Examination of historical allows concluding that these approaches have deep historical roots. This refers not to the classical mercenary, but namely to “hybrid” actions, when the contractor and purpose of mercenaries are hidden, and military actions are accompanied by economic confrontation and mass cyber-attacks. The author carries out component-wise analysis for understanding the nature of emergence and waging of “hybrid” warfare at different historical stages. Based on the experience of conducting warfare and armed conflicts, the conclusion is made that the threat of “hybrid” actions is extremely relevant currently and in the foreseeable future. Moreover, the author determines that other previously existing but modified with consideration of new factors of civilizational development “hybrid” approaches towards organization of inter-state confrontation may be implemented. The need to ensure readiness of the Russian Federation to parrying such threats is underlined.

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The questions of the relationship and correspondence of the development of two components of military theory: theory of military art and theory of weapons and equipment are considered. On the historical examples of Falklands War in 1982, the 1991 Gulf War, air offensive operation of the NATO coalition group against the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1999, Operation Enduring Freedom launched in 2001 by a multinational group in Afghanistan, wars in Iraq in 2001, ongoing armed conflict in the Syrian Arab Republic, compliance degree of development of the designated components of military theory of the participants in the conflicts with the results of these armed conflicts is compared.The correspondence between the development of the theory of weapons and the technology of the development of the theory of military art is presented by the authors of this article as one of the principles of the development of military theory. The cited historical examples of armed conflicts of the last forty years, to a large extent, indicate that success in conflicts is achieved by the side in which military concepts of the use of troops (forces) developed and implemented during the conflict corresponded to the level of development of the theory of weapons and military equipment. In other words, the capabilities of weapons and equipment systems involved in the conflict met the requirements of the use concepts of troops (forces) implemented during the conflict, namely the inherent forms and methods of using certain military formations.Separately, with regard to Ukraine, examples of attempts to implement the above principle in different historical periods are presented, taking into account the military and historical situation that is developing in and around Ukraine, a judgment is made about the justification of a certain dominant impact of the process of developing concepts of the use of security and defense on the development trends of weapons and equipment.

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In the article the concept of survivability as a component of combat capability of military equipment is considered. In the conditions of conducting combat operations, increase of survivability of fighting vehicles provides success of performance of the assigned tasks. The essence and content of the category “survivabilityˮ are defined as a complex concept which includes reliability, durability, stability, secrecy, dynamism and recoverability. Its place in the general system of categories of military art is estimated, the analysis of indicators of survivability of automobile and armored vehicles is carried out.An analysis of recent research and publications has been conducted and the theory of the effectiveness of weapons and military equipment, operation of armored vehicles, the basics of the theory of reliability of armored vehicles, probability theory and mathematical statistics as a scientific basis for assessing the level of survivability of armored vehicles have been determined.The main attributes of survivability and its main properties are defined. Conditions of combat use of automobile and armored vehicles are random and have probabilistic characteristics of road conditions, speed and mode of movement, enemy counteraction, etc. Taking into account the considered properties it is offered to estimate survivability of cars by a complex indicator - the generalized coefficient of survivability of automobile and armored vehicles. The obtained dependence, which allows assessing the level of survivability of the armored vehicles of the military unit, as a component of the combat capability of vehicles and determined the essence and content of the category “survivability of automotive and armored vehiclesˮ, its place and role among other categories of military art, a common understanding has been adopted in these issues, which are in the interests of both the further development of military science and the solution of practical problems facing troops.

ПОЄДИНОК ЖАНА ДЕ БЮЕЯ ТА ДЖОНА ЧЕЛОНСА В МІСТІ ТУР 1446 РОКУ: КІННЕ ТУРНІРНЕ ЗІТКНЕННЯ À OUTRANCE У ТЕКСТАХ ТА ЗОБРАЖЕННЯХ

This paper is focused on the joust between English squire John Chalons and French écuyer Louis de Bueil, that was held in 1446 in Tours, France, in the King Charles VII of France and his courtiers presence. The mounted combatants fought with full armour on using couched lances. The article also covers the connection issue of this chivalric encounters type with warfare and military practices of that time, their effectiveness in then military training and interpretations of 15th century tournaments and pas d’armes in the 20th -early 21 century historiography. Available existing sources for this event suggest that the fighters with premeditation used lethal combat techniques during the collision, that resulted in Louis de Bueil death. However, Jean de Bueil, the older brother of the deceased, soldier, courtier and writer, expresses his highly hostile attitude towards chivalric practices of this kind in his autobiographical work "Le Jouvencel", which in the long run led to a false interpretation of the Late Middle Ages pas d’armes as an escapist and anachronic manifestation of the Late Middle Ages elites culture, spread by renowned Dutch scholar Johann Huizinga and his epigones. The article has its emphasis on participants’ arms and armour, as well as their impact on the course and result of a joust. The paper presents the analysis of the narrative program of eight mid. 15th century colored handwritten miniatures, conveing the stages and course of the duel. Visual narration is created with profound knowledge of the knight weapon and equipment features, as well as an accurate understanding of the equestrian encounters course and logic. Depicted by unknown artist plate armor on the combating fighters has direct historical analogies among the preserved survived artifacts of knights weapons. This miniatures series may be considered as a ‘documentary military art’ prominent example for its time.

PHENOMENON OF YOUTH MILITARY GAME IN MILITARIS DOMESTIC CULTURE

Introduction. One of the main areas of educational activity is preparing young generation of our citizens to defend their country, as well as involving them in all types of public affairs during the period of peaceful life. The upbringing system in history of formation of archaic cultures included various types of physical and moral-ethical tests, it had a sacred character, thereby providing a colossal defense resource for their territories. In modern intercivilizational communication, the procedure of forming a "peaceful man" or "Homo humanitatis", whose ancestor was a military man ("Homo militaris") on the example of practical possibilities of the phenomenon of youth military game in the culture of the Ukrainian Cossacks, is undoubtedly a topical issue of domestic socio-philosophical analysis. Actual scientific researches and issues analysis.Studying of the peculiarities of the mentality in the field of military activity begin in the middle of the 20th century in the works by W. Wundt on the psychology of nations, L. Levy-Bruhl's works on the problems of the mentality of archaic society, as well as the works by C. Levi-Strauss, O. Losev, W. Propp, E. Taylor, A. Toynbee, J. Frazer, J. Huizinga, and in the works by S. Huntington we find the analysis of common civilizational values and ways to preserve cultural identity.The aim. The article investigates modern theoretical and methodological approaches to filling the phenomenon of competitive military game in the militaris national culture. The research methodology is based on a system-structural, hermeneutic and activity approach. In turn, the application of comparative analysis, analytical, dialectical, historical-logical and retrospective methods provide an analysis of the relationships and connections of the basic components of the socio-philosophical dimension of social reality.The statement of basic materials.The militaris culture is not only a way of thinking about specific levels of individual and collective consciousness, but it necessarily takes into account social experience, life-affirming complex of national traditions, originality of culturological possibilities of the game phenomenon, therefore, we can say that significant changes in the military sphere of life are due to national territorial affiliation participants in war Game and their personal attitude to humanitarian dimension of war. Gradually, the military sphere of culture becomes the basis for the historical process of formation of certain norms and rules of coexistence of the whole community, due to which the legal and regulatory function of culture is carried out. Newly created empires have always been ready to repel aggressive intentions, but even barbaric military groups quickly master technical advances and learn the art of war. This historical recurrence leads to changes in the social structure itself, when, as a result of the active development of military affairs, a disciplined military class is formed from which the administrative elite of state associations stands out. A gradual change in military conditions in life of society ensures further development of a state as a cultural entity, and the ethnic characteristics of various forms of military art and the sacred nature of weapon manufacture contributed to preservation of community integrity and transition from forms of military activity to processes of state creation. Conclusion. The article proves the position that military culture has always objectively been one of the main components of civilizational development, and the understanding of the cardinal contradiction of military conflicts today must be resolved exclusively in such socio-cultural contexts as science, education, art, etc. It was noted that in this case one can try to change the world tragedy of the destruction of the life of a particular person into a military virtual Game as a component of an intercivilizational dialogue.

Military art of Bohdan Khmelnytsky and other Cossack colonels in 1648–1651: achievements, defects and inconsolable finale

Bohdan Khmelnytsky’s uprising was a turning point in the history of the Polish-Lithuanian Common-wealth, and historians appropriately consider 1648 the point that separates its glory days from its decline. The Commonwealth’s losses at Korsun, Pyliavtsi, Batih etc. and their de facto ‘capitulations’ at Zboriv and Zhvanetz proved not only the crisis of the old Polish military art but also how complicated the socio-economic situation in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had become. Attempts to solve the ‘Cossack question’ in a peaceful way were neither far-sighted nor brave enough. At the same time, attempts to reform the state failed because of the Civil war (Lubomirski’s rokosz) of 1665–1666. Cossack Ukraine (Hetmanshchyna) was also going through difficult times: de facto independence from the Commonwealth that they achieved in 1649 was nominally lost in 5 years. After a short-lived upturn, lack of reforms, which were practically impossible under the conditions of the never-ending wars, and lack of will on behalf of Hetmans that followed Khmelnytsky, led to the quick stagnation of the Cossack military art. The main purpose of this article was to demonstrate the evolution of the military art of Bohdan Khmelnytsky and the other Cossack colonels, as well as to analyse their successes and mistakes during 1648–1651. Additionally, the reasons behind the great Cossack-Tatar victories during the first years of the uprising of Bohdan Khmelnytsky were outlined. At the end I explain why the great victories of 1648–1651, as well as the whole complex of socio-economic-political changes that took place on the territory of modern Ukraine since the mid 17th century ended in a de facto defeat. Article received 10.03.2019

HISTORY OF MILITARY TRAINING IN CRIMEAN MEDICAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER S. I. GEORGIEVSKY

The present paper represents main periods of military and medical training in the Crimean Medical University named after S. I. Georgievsky from 1945 to 2010. The first period (1945–1970). Training of army medical officers for Army Forces was carried out at the Military Arts Division. In 1960, due to reduction in Army Forces by 1200000 servants the division was dissolved. From 1960 to 1968, training in Crimean Medical Institute was not conducted. In 1968, the Military Arts Division was restored and to 1970, the training of army medical officers for Army Forces was continued. The second period (1970–1991). In 1970, the Naval Division was found and training of surgeons for the Navy was started. The third period (1991–2010). The Naval Division was renamed in the Military Arts Division where training of army medical officers for Army Forces was started. The division was further changed its name twice to the Division of Extreme and Military Medicine and the Division of Disaster Medicine. In 2010, the government of Ukraine made a decision regarding cutbacks of the Division of Disaster and Military Medicine in the Crimean Medical University. In the same year, the last graduation of army medical officers was held. Throughout the military training period, of the more than 7000 graduates of the Crimean Medical Institute (University) were certified as reserve officers of Medical Service for the Navy and of the more than 8000 graduates — as reserve officers of Medical Service for the Armed Forces.

КОМПАРАТИВНЫЙ АНАЛИЗ СЕВЕРНОЙ ВОЙНЫ (1700-1721 ГГ.) И ВОЙНЫ ЗА ИСПАНСКОЕ НАСЛЕДСТВО (1701-1714 ГГ.): КУЛЬТУРНО-ЦИВИЛИЗАЦИОННЫЙ И ВОЕННО-ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНЫЙ АСПЕКТЫ

The article considers the military history of Russia and Western Europe through the lenses of the comparative approach. The paper focuses on two wars of the beginning of the XVIII century: the Great Northern War (1700-1721) and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). The analysis of military art of the mentioned period emphasizes a cultural-civilization aspect rather than a utilitarian professional one. Strategy, tactics, military logistics, military campaigns, field battles and besiegement are analysed in the comparative aspect and in relation to original culture and peculiar local conditions. The elements and branches of military theory are analysed through the prism of traditional discourse on borrowed or original nature of Peter the Great’s military reforms and on autonomy of domestic military science of the mentioned period.

ВІЙСЬКОВІ ХИТРОЩІ КУБАНСЬКИХ КОЗАКІВ ПІД ЧАС АНТИБІЛЬШОВИЦЬКОГО ПОВСТАННЯ У БАТАЛПАШИНСЬКОМУ ВІДДІЛІ ВЛІТКУ 1918 р. ЗА СПОГАДАМИ А.Г. ШКУРО

An important component of the military art are stratagems or military tricks. Cossack formations also actively used this military tool. An example of this was the Cossack uprising in the North Caucasus (the uprising of the Kuban Cossacks) against the Bolshevik regime in the summer of 1918 under the command of A.G. Shkuro. Then the Cossack rebels won many victories over the Red Army troops. Important role in this was played by the proper use of military tricks (strategem). The author of this article found 17 stratagems (military tricks). Among them, the Cossacks most often used 5: Intelligence; Hiding plans and status of troops; An unexpected attack; Demoralization of enemy troops; Capture of military prey. The reason for the successful use of military tricks was the specific priorities of the rebel-guerrilla actions of the Kuban Cossacks in this mountain and forest region. Of great importance was the style of command thinking of A.G. Shkuro, formed during the First World War (he created and led the best Cossack detachment that conducted special operations in the rear of the enemy). The military heritage of the ancestors of the Kuban Cossacks - Zaporizhzhya Cossacks, also played an important role. It was based on the naturalness, flexibility and effectiveness of the warrior and the whole detachment in battle.The author discovered and formulated military tricks (strategies) on the basis of previous scientific publications on the military art of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks in 1621 (under the command of Hetman Peter Sahaidachny) and 1649 (under the command of Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky). The military tricks of the Cossack rebels revealed the versatility and originality of their military arts.

A Perspetiva Polemológica Quinhentista da Arenga Militar

Na Antiguidade, os grandes generais viram na exortação das tropas um poderoso aliado contra o inimigo, como o comprovam os tratados militares de Onassandro ou Vegécio. Pelas suas qualidades impressivas, os historiógrafos greco-romanos inseriram a arenga militar nos seus relatos, reelaborando-a retoricamente, num tempo em que a historiografia se aproximou da retórica. Em pleno século do Renascimento, tempo marcado pela pirobalística e pela crescente profissionalização dos exércitos, os tratados militares coevos continuam a propor aos comandos militares o recurso à exortação e à motivação das tropas. Se assinalar este facto já seria importante, a verdade é que a perspetiva polemológica militar quinhentista da arenga militar surge enriquecida com os contextos de pronunciação e os topoi retóricos consagrados pela tradição literária clássica. Assim, neste artigo e de forma transversal, identificamos os tópicos retóricos que os tratados militares escritos por Maquiavel, Fernando Oliveira e Scarion de Pavia prescrevem aos generais antes ou durante uma batalha, inserindo-os na respetiva filiação retórico-historiográfica. Procuraremos demonstrar que a arenga militar, nestes tratados, estará, nos tópicos e nos contextos de pronunciação, mais comprometida com a historiografia clássica do que com a coeva tratadística antiga. Originária do meio castrense, reelaborada retoricamente no silêncio do gabinete do historiógrafo, regressa, no século XVI, ao seu ambiente original, enriquecida e adaptada a diferentes contextos bélicos. É um estudo inédito da importância que a arte militar do século XVI conferia ainda à pronunciação de uma arenga militar, como forma de galvanização dos soldados para a guerra.

Spearheads from Burials of Savromato-Sarmatian Time from the Territory of Volgograd Region (Materials for Catalogue)

Introduction. Information about the armament and military arts of nomads of the Early Iron age can be obtained from writings of Greek and Roman authors, who note the warlike temper of Savromatian and Sarmatian tribes. They mention bows, swords and spears among the armament of nomads in their works. This information is confirmed by the archaeological material. Finds of spearheads in burials are quite rare and are ranked third after arrows and swords in percentage. Methods. The typological features of spearheads are based on the shape of their pen, which allows distinguishing two types of spears – leaf-shaped and lence-shaped. Analysis. This article is the beginning of the catalog of spearheads, darts and spear counter-weights found in the Lower Volga Region in Savromatian and Sarmatian monuments. At this moment, the authors have taken into account a sample of 29 spearheads, 3 darts and 3 spear counter-weights and made their typological analysis. Results. The typological analysis, which forms the basis of our classification of spearheads, allows tracing the development of this type of armament in Volgograd region. The further development of this topic will help to find typological interrelationships of spearheads, to clarify their chronological positions and features of mutual occurrence in burials with other types of armament and equipment. In turn, this analysis will help to determine the social status of the buried persons and their role in ethnopolitical processes.

Regular and irregular forces in conflict: nineteenth century insurgencies in South America

ABSTRACT In the decades following independence from Spain, ‘civil wars’ ravaged the newly established polities in South America. Former vice-regal capitals inherited a larger portion of the colonial administration and had larger economic resources and a hegemonic project they were able to have permanent and professional armed forces, capable of leading the offensive and giving battle following the European rules of military art. The central hypothesis of this work is that there is a necessary relationship between the shape of these asymmetrical conflicts, their outcome and the political territorial configuration of each country in post-revolutionary Spanish America. When permanent armies took over from local militias, the capital kept the integrity of its territories and there was a tendency towards political centralization. When this did not happen and the militias managed to find a way to defeat their centralizing enemies, the local powers had an opportunity to renegotiate their participation in the political body, and sought to maintain their independence, which was manifest in federal agreements, otherwise a process of territorial fragmentation began. More than a difference between regular and irregular forces there was one between intermittent, and permanent mobilization.