Iron Trade Research Articles

Global trade of green iron as a game changer for a near-zero global steel industry? - A scenario-based assessment of regionalized impacts

The currently most promising approach for reducing CO2 emissions of the global steel production is reducing iron ore in shaft furnaces with (green) hydrogen instead of blast furnaces. Unlike to the liquid iron produced in blast furnaces, the direct reduced iron produced in this route (green iron) exists in a solid state and can be transported at reasonable costs over long distances. This allows for spatial decoupling of the iron reduction step from the steelmaking step and may lead to global trade in green iron as a new intermediate product in the steelmaking value chain. This article assesses the potential impact of a global green iron trade in terms of shifting energy demand between regions and in terms of cost savings by comparing three scenarios for a global near-zero GHG steel industry: The Domestic scenario, assuming strict regional co-location of green iron and steel production; The Max Trade scenario, assuming early emergence of a global green iron market and the Intermediate Trade scenario, assuming late emergence of a global green iron market. In the trade scenarios, 12-21% of global crude steel is produced from traded green iron in 2050. 15-26 Mt/a of hydrogen consumption is relocated to global “sweet spots”, resulting in cost savings of 2.2-3.9% of the global annual steel production costs, which can provide important support for the development of net zero steel production. Enablers and barriers for global green iron trade are discussed.

The impact of the evolution of the iron raw material trade pattern on the national economy: The B&R perspective

Iron plays a pivotal part in the economic development of the countries along the Belt and Road (B&R countries), most of which are developing countries. With the continuous deepening of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), the iron trade pattern has changed, which has had diverse impacts on economic development. Therefore, from the perspective of the iron industry chain, we investigate the impact of the evolution of the iron raw material (IRM) trade pattern on the national economic development of the B&R countries based on the complex network and penal regression method. The major completions are as follows: (1) The import of IRM has a significant promoting effect on the national economy; (2) After the BRI proposal, the structure of iron products exported by B&R countries has been upgraded, and the dependence of the economy on IRM export has decreased, which is conducive to economic development; (3) The trade of IRM among B&R countries has become more diversified, resulting in a lack of significant correlation between betweenness centrality and the national economy.

Exploring the Correlation between Brazilian Iron Ore Exports and the Chinese Construction Sector


 
 
 
 A B S T R A C T
 
 This article investigates the international iron trade, focusing on the Brazil-China network and its implications for economic and social progress. Iron supports various industries, particularly construction, manufacturing, and infrastructure development. The study employs descriptive analysis, quantitative measures, and correlation coefficients to analyse the dynamics of the iron trade. The research highlights Australia and Brazil as significant exporters in the global iron ore market, with China as the primary importer. Network analysis reveals China's extensive commercial connections and strong trade relationships with key exporting countries. Correlation coefficients demonstrate positive associations between Brazil's Iron Exports, Brazilian GDP, Chinese construction sector GDP, and world construction sector GDP, emphasising their interdependence. Understanding these dynamics is essential for policymakers, economists, and industry stakeholders in navigating the complexities of the global economy. The study provides valuable insights into the international iron trade, its impact on the construction sector, and broader economic dynamics. It contributes to informed decision-making and promotes sustainable economic and social development.
 
 
 

The Impact of Charcoal Iron Production on the Landscape of the South Lakes, Cumbria (UK) During the Eighteenth Century Using Archival Material Combined with Remote Mapping Techniques

ABSTRACT The history of the charcoal iron trade in the Southern Lake District in Cumbria, England is well recognised, with activity controlled by a very small number of iron production companies intensifying during the eighteenth century. This activity, from the initial extraction of the ore, through the development of a transport infrastructure and the construction of furnaces, to the management of woodlands for charcoal production, has left its mark on the landscape. A wealth of untapped information is held in the region’s documentary archives, which provides data on the iron production companies themselves, primarily via account books and associated documents. These records include detail on the charcoal bought in—not only the dates and precise quantities, but the names of the source woodlands and even the names of the individual producers themselves. Using GIS, these sources have been examined in combination with remotely sensed data to provide new evidence of the impact of the iron trade on the woodlands of the Lake District. The results demonstrate that charcoal production was so vital to the iron industry that the woodlands were carefully and sustainably managed, the legacy of which we enjoy today.

Wortley Forge: The Evolution of an Eighteenth-Century Ironworks

The experiences of Wortley Forge reflect the British iron trade’s transformation during the eighteenth century, and iron’s pivotal role in industrialization. Its management – first under regional syndicates, afterwards, from 1739, by the Cockshutt family – shows the advantages and pitfalls of family businesses. There is new insight into the Cockshutts and their relationship to leading engineers and scientists, and into the personal interactions and industrial networks so important to eighteenth-century business ventures.

Vice-versa: The iron trade in the western Roman Empire between Gaul and the Mediterranean.

Starting from the second century BC, with the fast expansion of the Roman Empire, iron production and consumption developed exponentially in north-western Europe. This rapid growth naturally led to an increase in trade, that still remains to be studied encompassing a broad scope, so as to not neglect long-distance exchanges. This is today possible by taking advantage of the progress made in the past 40 years in archaeology and archaeometallurgy. Cargoes of iron bars recovered from a group of 23 wrecks located off the coast of Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer (Bouches-du-Rhône, France), opposite an old branch of the Rhône River, constitute a rich opportunity to examine this trade, by comparing the slag inclusions trapped in iron bars to primary slag from the six main ironmaking areas in Gaul. Based on a trace element analysis of these inclusions and this slag, we suggest that ships travelled down the Rhône carrying iron produced in Wallonia (Belgium), while others sailed up the Rhône transporting iron produced in Montagne Noire (Aude, France).

The Material Fall of Roman Britain, 300–525 CE By Robin Fleming. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2021. Pp. 303. $45. ISBN 978-0-8122-5244-6 (cloth).

<i>The Material Fall of Roman Britain, 300–525 CE</i> By Robin Fleming. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2021. Pp. 303. $45. ISBN 978-0-8122-5244-6 (cloth).

The Impact of the Evolution of the Iron Trade Pattern on the National Economy

The Impact of the Evolution of the Iron Trade Pattern on the National Economy

Analysis of China’s Iron Trade Flow: Quantity, Value and Regional Pattern

Iron is an important metal material that supports the development of society and national economies. Due to the uneven distribution of resources, there is frequent trade around the world. Therefore, mastering the global flow path and trade pattern provides an essential basis for the sustainable utilization of iron and related products. Based on the artificial flow of iron in international trade, this study used the material flow analysis method to investigate this flow. Based on the data of China’s international iron trade from China Customs and the United Nations trade administration, this study systematically analyzed the structure, type, quantity, and value of iron-containing commodities in 2018. The results were as follows: (1) China was a net importer of iron and formed a trade structure of “import raw materials and export products.” (2) There was a large trade surplus in China’s iron international trade. The quality of iron exported by China was high, and the price is relatively low; therefore, countries around the world have a great dependence on the iron imported from China. (3) Compared with developed countries, China is in urgent need of high-end technologies and can only import high-tech iron products from abroad. Therefore, the value of China’s exports of iron-containing commodities is relatively low, while that of its imports is relatively high.

O espaço Senegambiano:

Este artigo tem o objetivo de analisar de que maneira o comércio interno de ferro desenvolvido na região da Senegâmbia pode nos auxiliar em uma nova compreensão sobre as relações sociais que conformaram o espaço senegambiano durante o século XVI. Critica-se uma visão dicotômica da região caraterizada pela hierarquização dos povos ao norte e ao sul da região em sociedades que apresentavam ou não organização estatal. Utilizando-se de relatos de viagem, a principal linha de análise de baseia na percepção das diferentes rotas comerciais e da construção de espaços sociais proposta por Jean-Loup Amselle, possível de ser compreendido através dos conceitos de cadeia de sociedades e espaços de troca.

금관가야의 복식 연구 : 상의(上衣) 길이를 중심으로

The purpose of this study is to examine the length of Geumgwan Gaya"s upper garments. Samgukji (三國志) mentions that people in Geumgwan Gaya wore a po (袍;robe) in the third century. A po is a long-length, Chinese style article of clothing that reaches one"s feet. It resulted from the iron trade between Nakrang and Geumgwan Gaya. From Nakrang"s visual materials, it is presumed that, if the people of Geumgwan Gaya wore Nakrang"s clothing and hats (衣幘), po as well as yu (襦;hip-length jacket) and jangyu (長襦;calf-length long jacket) were also worn. The upper garments of the fourth and fifth centuries were found in the visual materials of Geumgwan Gaya and neighboring countries. Clay figures from Geumgwan Gaya include yu and po. Yet, in three kingdoms (Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla), men solely wore yu, while women wore jangyu as well. According to archeological specimens such as horse harnesses, Geumgwan Gaya is similar in form to Three Yans (前燕, 後燕, 北燕) and Buyeo. Therefore, it is also necessary to consider the historical clothing materials of these regions. We can see yu, jangyu and po from Three Yans" visual materials and po from Buyeo"s historical literature records. The three kingdoms, Three Yans and Buyeo are northern regions where people originally wore yu and pants that were convenient for horse riding. In the case of Three Yans and Buyeo, the Chinese influence also made them wear long, leisurely clothes, which is very similar to the style in Geumgwan Gaya. However, clothing of Geumgwan Gaya is more closely related to Buyeo and Three Yans than that of the three kingdoms because Geumgwan Gaya wore all three lengths of clothing; yu, jangyu and po.

Material and value flows of iron in Chinese international trade from 2010 to 2016

The study of flows of iron-containing commodities through China can reveal international trade pathways and the processes involved in global iron material flows. This study presents an iron material flow analysis that incorporates all iron-containing commodities, including IEPs (iron-containing end products). We analyzed material and value flows of iron-containing commodities between China and other countries worldwide. The results are as follows. (1) During the period from 2010 to 2016, the total amounts of iron materials imported to and exported from China increased by 224 million tons and 81 million tons, respectively. (2) 90% of the iron material imported by China consisted of iron ore and was imported from Australia and Brazil. More than 98% of the iron material exported from China consisted of rolled steel and IEPs (mainly engineering machinery and land vehicles), and were exported to Japan, South Korea, and the United States. In 2014, the export volume of rolled steel exceeded that of IEPs. (3) China had an international iron trade surplus, which increased from 31 billion USD in 2010 to 272 billion USD in 2016 at an average annual growth rate of 130%. According to this, some suggestions on how to optimize the resource allocation in the industrial chain of iron-containing products and the international trade policy of iron-containing products were put forward.

Transport Costs and Trade Volumes: Evidence from the Trans-Atlantic Iron Trade, 1870–1913

We use newly compiled evidence on inter- and intra-continental shipping costs to investigate the relationship between transportation and trade for trans-Atlantic iron markets from 1870–1913. Although we find a surprisingly weak connection linking ocean freight rates to British exports, after controlling for endogeneity and measuring all costs associated with inter-continental pig iron shipments and the intra-continental assembly of raw materials, the importance of transportation strongly asserts itself. The cost to transport pig iron across the Atlantic, and the cost to transport iron ore and coking coal within North America, were important determinants of the volume of British exports.

Romania's Deindustrialisation. From the “Golden Age” to the “Iron Scrap Age”

In the long evolutionary course of human civilisation, the past two centuries have been characterised by the theory of industrialisation. After 1990, a new reality gave birth to the opposite term: deindustrialisation. The primordial foundation underlying the development of industry in the 20th century, and particularly in its mid-third, was the manufacturing of metal, and especially steel. Following the two shock-waves in 1973 and 1978, when rocketing prices shook the oil industry, the production of steel reversed its trend in the majority of the developed countries, and mostly in the European Union member states, where, after 1990, steel production had a much lower, or, sometimes, a negative, rate of growth. This was paralleled by a growing volume of the trade in scrap iron. Encouraged by the generous principle of free circulation of products, such a trade seems, however, to be in contradiction with the principles of sustainable development, reduction of carbon emissions, and energy saving, promoted by the EU.

Resources for Change

Resources for Change Elizabeth Wishnick (bio) Elizabeth C. Economy and Michael Levi’s By All Means Necessary: How China’s Resource Quest Is Changing the World New York: Oxford University Press, 2014 ISBN: 978-0-19-992178-2 (hardcover) Three decades ago, China was an oil exporter—sales of its fossil fuels accounted for nearly one-quarter of the country’s GDP and helped finance its economic reforms. After 30 years of rapid economic growth, China has now surpassed the United States as the world’s largest net oil importer. The country’s surging demand for energy, as well as for mineral resources and food products, has contributed to rising prices and raised fears about Chinese state-owned companies scouring the world for resources and locking up supplies. Is China’s global quest for resources a game changer? In By All Means Necessary: How China’s Resource Quest Is Changing the World, a wide-ranging analysis of Chinese resource-acquisition strategies, Elizabeth Economy and Michael Levi debunk alarmist myths about China’s growing footprint in global resource markets. They are uniquely placed to do so—Economy is an expert on China’s environment, resources, and foreign policy, while Levi is an authority on energy policy, climate, and technology. Unlike many recent books that focus on China’s demand for a particular resource, By All Means Necessary compares China’s global quests for oil, gas, minerals, food, and water. The authors argue that it is necessary to examine the particular dynamics in each resource sector to assess the impact of Chinese demand and corporate practices. In particular, Economy and Levi caution against attributing recent increases in resource prices to China’s pressure on markets. Oil producers, for example, have revenue targets. Once met, if prices are high enough, there is little incentive to increase supply regardless of demand pressures from China and other countries (p. 26). Moreover, contrary to the oft-heard trope about Chinese state oil companies locking up supplies, their production activities actually bring more oil to world markets. Some economists further note that the oil used in China’s production of goods for export—known as embodied oil—obviates the need by other countries for that oil in their own production process because they buy the finished [End Page 169] products from China. Chinese demand for oil, in effect, reflects global demand for goods produced in China.1 In the case of iron ore, developments in the Chinese steel industry unintentionally made the dynamics of the global iron trade more market-oriented. Economy and Levi recount how the emergence of small steelmaking companies in China undercut efforts by major Chinese firms to demand lower prices from the three main global producers of iron ore, Vale, Rio Tinto, and BHP Billiton, which control 70% of the trade (p. 37). As a result of changes in the Chinese industry, the iron trade shifted radically from an emphasis on long-term contracts to a system where spot markets play a much greater role (p. 39). According to Economy and Levi, it is in commercial relationships where China’s impact is increasingly felt, as Chinese companies invest more extensively in a wide variety of countries and sectors (p. 45). Chinese firms are relatively new players and have to work harder to make friends, drawing on networks of informal and personal relationships. This can cause deals to unravel when the leadership changes in target countries. Chinese companies may also overbid or overpromise to win a deal, only to see their projects collapse or turn out to be less profitable than anticipated (p. 73). The complex interconnections between Chinese political and economic elites present both opportunities and risks. Unlike in other countries, Chinese companies can depend on top political leaders to act as “diplomat deal makers” (p. 72). However, this means that political disputes have the potential to spill over into trade and investment, as was seen in 2010 when increased tensions between China and Japan disrupted the trade in rare earths between the two countries (p. 75). China claims to follow the principle of “noninterference” in the domestic affairs of other states, and its companies enter into deals with none of the preconditions...

Cargoes of Iron Semi‐Products Recovered from Shipwrecks off the Carmel Coast, Israel

Underwater surveys along the Israeli Carmel coast have revealed six cargoes of iron semi‐products associated with shipwrecks. They are described and dated according to the associated artefacts. Metallographic and chemical analyses on samples from the biggest cargo have determined the stages of the chaîne opératoire, identified the properties of the iron and characterized the iron trade along the Israeli coast. The new discoveries contribute to our understanding of the circulation of iron in the South Levant, which was characterized by an almost complete absence of local iron production. During the Byzantine and Crusader periods, this absence was compensated by long‐distance sea trade, depending on political circumstances and restrictions. Three main types of iron semi‐products were identified: (a) partly consolidated blooms, (b) short pointed bars and (c) elongated pointed bars. The cargoes discovered represent a time period of nearly a millennium. Altogether, 148 iron semi‐products were studied. Of these, 166 were from cargo a, which was dated by coins to around 1130–1200 ce. Those coins could have been imported from Europe for Crusader military and civil uses in the Levant. The iron from cargoes b, d and f, dated perhaps to the Byzantine period, could have been imported from Anatolia or Venice for military and civil purposes.

The Rise and Decline of the Birmingham Cut-Nail Trade, c. 1811–1914

This article examines the Birmingham cut-nail trade, the less well-known and far less-studied branch of a great west midland manufacturing tradition. It is set at three levels. At one level, its purpose is to add to an understanding of the ‘general hardware’ sector of the Birmingham economy. At a second level, it aims to help redress the balance of the history of the iron trade — a history recently described as ‘obdurately supply-sided’, with historians focusing on the technological and entrepreneurial aspects of iron production to the detriment of research into the uses to which iron was put. Nailmaking is a classic proto-industrial activity. Therefore, at a third level, the essay explores the transition of nailmaking from its proto-industrial origins in the Black Country to a factory-based system in Birmingham. A classic five-stage product life-cycle model — development, introduction, growth, maturity and decline — provides an appropriate framework within which to examine the way in which Birmingham’s cut-nail trade rose to a position of pre-eminence in the mid-nineteenth century and why it subsequently declined.

The Hierro Commerce:

The Marianas iron trade, the earliest sustained cultural interaction and material exchange between Pacific Islanders and Europeans, extended from Magellan's 1521 visit to the 1668 Spanish mission. In a paradigm of cross-cultural exchange and technology appropriation, the trade represents a continuum of interaction that produced a structure and process for reliable access to a valued exogenous resource, which high-status Islanders integrated into their industries and reciprocity regimes. As the exchange (and related repatriation initiatives for sojourning clerics and galleon castaways) became a recurring, rewarding activity over several generations, it created conceptual categories for people previously unknown to each other, a related suite of values and attitudes, and corresponding behavioural and social adaptations. This ‘culture of culture contact’ generated dynamic Islander–Spanish intercourse, positive trade relationships and political entanglements which provided a receptive milieu for missionaries dedicated to social transformation and political consolidation under Spain's Patranado Real system of imperial expansion and administration.

REVIEW: Man Food: Recipes from the Iron Trade Forward

REVIEW: Man Food: Recipes from the Iron Trade Forward

From Salon to Soap-Box: Kate Crane Gartz, Parlor Provocateur

Katherine Elizabeth (Kate) Crane was born in Chicago in 1865, the oldest daughter of wealthy iron-master Richard Teller CraneHis enormously successful Crane Company manufactured products ranging from valves and plumbing fixtures to freight and passenger elevators* What the name of Marshall Field & Company to the dry-goods trade and of Swift and Armour to the packing industry of Chicago, wrote one historian, is the name of the Crane Company to the iron trade.3