Transformational Grammar Research Articles

Computation Against a Neighbour: Addressing Large-Scale Distribution and Adaptivity with Functional Programming and Scala

Recent works in contexts like the Internet of Things (IoT) and large-scale Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) propose the idea of programming distributed systems by focussing on their global behaviour across space and time. In this view, a potentially vast and heterogeneous set of devices is considered as an "aggregate" to be programmed as a whole, while abstracting away the details of individual behaviour and exchange of messages, which are expressed declaratively. One such a paradigm, known as aggregate programming, builds on computational models inspired by field-based coordination. Existing models such as the field calculus capture interaction with neighbours by a so-called "neighbouring field" (a map from neighbours to values). This requires ad-hoc mechanisms to smoothly compose with standard values, thus complicating programming and introducing clutter in aggregate programs, libraries and domain-specific languages (DSLs). To address this key issue we introduce the novel notion of "computation against a neighbour", whereby the evaluation of certain subexpressions of the aggregate program are affected by recent corresponding evaluations in neighbours. We capture this notion in the neighbours calculus (NC), a new field calculus variant which is shown to smoothly support declarative specification of interaction with neighbours, and correspondingly facilitate the embedding of field computations as internal DSLs in common general-purpose programming languages -- as exemplified by a Scala implementation, called ScaFi. This paper formalises NC, thoroughly compares it with respect to the classic field calculus, and shows its expressiveness by means of a case study in edge computing, developed in ScaFi.

Generating diverse augmented attributes for generalized zero shot learning

Generalized Zero-Shot Learning (GZSL) has become an important research due to its powerful ability of recognizing unseen objects. Generative methods, converting conventional GZSL to fully supervised learning, can achieve competing performance, and most of them use semantic attributes plus Gaussian noise to enrich generated features. The visual features obtained in this way are consistent with the semantic description. However, the reality is that the semantic description of the visual features of the same category should be different, because the appearance of images differs from each other although they belong to a same category, i.e., mapping from semantic attributes to visual features should be a “many to many” relationship rather than “one to many”. Therefore, we propose a novel method to generate diverse augmented attribute, which are subsequently utilized to synthesize features. We construct a semantic generator based on a pre-trained semantic mapper, which augments the category semantics. Using the augmented category semantics to generate visual features will result in a better fit of the generated visual features to the distribution of real features. The proposed method can well solve the pseudo diversity of visual features generated by most generative GZSL methods. We evaluate the proposed method on five popular benchmark datasets, and the results show that it can achieve the state-of-the-art performance.

Proto-Quipper with Dynamic Lifting

Quipper is a functional programming language for quantum computing. Proto-Quipper is a family of languages aiming to provide a formal foundation for Quipper. In this paper, we extend Proto-Quipper-M with a construct called dynamic lifting , which is present in Quipper. By virtue of being a circuit description language, Proto-Quipper has two separate runtimes: circuit generation time and circuit execution time. Values that are known at circuit generation time are called parameters , and values that are known at circuit execution time are called states . Dynamic lifting is an operation that enables a state, such as the result of a measurement, to be lifted to a parameter, where it can influence the generation of the next portion of the circuit. As a result, dynamic lifting enables Proto-Quipper programs to interleave classical and quantum computation. We describe the syntax of a language we call Proto-Quipper-Dyn. Its type system uses a system of modalities to keep track of the use of dynamic lifting. We also provide an operational semantics, as well as an abstract categorical semantics for dynamic lifting based on enriched category theory. We prove that both the type system and the operational semantics are sound with respect to our categorical semantics. Finally, we give some examples of Proto-Quipper-Dyn programs that make essential use of dynamic lifting.

Relações epistemológicas entre a gramática gerativa transformacional de Noam Chomsky e a organização do conhecimento

Noam Chomsky is considered one of the greatest thinkers of the 20th century, and his contribution to Language is evident. The article analyses a possible dialogue between Transformational Generative Grammar, Chomsky's generativism and innatism, and the Knowledge Organization. By establishing epistemological and disciplinary relations with Knowledge Organization, Transformational Generative Grammar highlights the creative aspect of those who are building a given System, which in turn requires the incorporation of documentary languages, thesauriand ontologies, among other elements, for example. When designing these systems, in addition to knowledge of the social contextin which the subject is culturally inserted, the designer must have solid knowledge of the main relationships between that community and its main informationalneeds. For future analyses, this research will discuss in depth the relationship between Chomsky's Transformational Generative Grammar and Knowledge Organization for the development of documentary languages.

A Comparison between TG Grammar and Structural Grammar

Two major schools of grammar emerged in the 20th century, namely American Structural Grammar represented by L. Bloomfield and Transformational-Generative Grammar (TG Grammar) represented by Chomsky. This paper compares the differences between the two schools of grammar from aspects of background, the stage of development, the philosophical and psychological basis, the view of language, goals of study, objects and methods of study, language acquisition theory and other aspects. This paper also compares the differences between the two schools of grammar in English teaching. It is helpful for us to better grasp the nature of these two schools of grammar by comparing them, so as to better apply them to English teaching.

АСПЕКТУАЛЬНЫЕ МОДЕЛИ НАРРАТИВА В РУССКОМ И ЧЕШСКОМ ЯЗЫКАХ: ДОМИНАНТЫ И ДИСКУРСИВНЫЕ ВАРИАНТЫ ЯЗЫКОВОЙ ИНТЕРПРЕТАЦИИ

The subject of research in this article is narrative texts in Russian and Czech, which are compared in order to determine the specifics of the aspectual models of narrative in each language and the regularities of integration of interpretive mechanisms in artistic discourse. The comparison is carried out with the help of the Czech-Russian parallel subcorpus of the Czech National Corpus. In both languages, the dominant forms here are the perfective past tense forms, but significant differences in the combination of aspect forms have also been identified. In Czech, more often than in Russian, one or more resultant actions included in the narrative are represented as an ongoing process by means of non-perfective verbs. Our study confirms the assumptions of cognitive linguistics about the dual role of grammatical categorization, simultaneously directed at the world around us and the world of language, and allows us to clarify the mechanism of alignment and interaction of these aspects of categorization. On the one hand, the categorical semantics of the verb aspect and perfective and non-perfective forms fixes the cultural-historical specificity of perceiving the denoted elements of the dynamic world by the speech community. On the other hand, the grammatical conceptualization is influenced by the intrasystemic relations between verb categories and forms. Besides, differences in national discourse traditions have been revealed between the compared languages, namely the influence of the style of old epic poems on the pragmatic potential of preterit forms in modern Russian.

Economic terminology of the Uzbek language: Sources and methods of development

By the authors of the paper analyzing several properties of the economic terminology of the Uzbek language. In particular, data are given on the research of terms in various fields in Uzbek and world linguistics, interpretations of special terms in the works of linguists, and also considers the systemic characteristics, sources and ways of developing the economic terminology of the Uzbek language. Also paid attention to the process of development of the economic terminology of the Uzbek language based on the internal language potential, namely the methods of affixation, composition, abbreviation, semantic and others. Substantiated the role of borrowing in the development of the language in general and in the enrichment of economic terminology in particular. Considered the views of linguists from different countries on this issue. The opinions of the authors are substantiated by examples, which analyzed during the study.

The Linguistic Philosophy of Noam Chomsky

Noam Chomsky, one of the most famous linguists of the twentieth century, based his linguistic works on certain philosophical doctrines. His main contribution to linguistics is transformational Generative Grammar, which is founded on mentalist philosophy. He explains the acquisition of language. He claims that it becomes possible for human child to learn a language for the linguistic faculty with which the child is born, and that the use of language for an adult is mostly a mental exercise. His ideas brought about a revolution in linguistics, dubbed as Chomskyan Revolution.

Syntactic Analysis of Movement Transformation in Bahasa Indonesia

The objective of this article was to analyse the types of movement transformation which is applied in Bahasa Indonesia. This article aims to collect ideas, theories, and reported empirical data within the context of scholarship in the library. The theory used in this article was taken from the theory of Transformational Generative Grammar (TGG) introduced by Noam Chomsky. This article was an attempt to highlight how Chomsky’s concept called movement transfssormation works in Bahasa Indonesia. The data were taken from some sentences in Bahasa Indonesia. In this article, the sentences were analysed by using IC analysis. IC analysis is a method of analysing sentences by dividing them into their constituent structures. The methods used in analysing sentences were bracketing and tree diagram. Some types of movement transformation that were applied in Bahasa Indonesia were Affix Hopping, Interrogative (Aux Movement), Wh-Movement, Passive Transformation, Dative Movement, Topicalization, Particle Movement, and Relative Movement.

THE ACTUALIZING OF THE SEMANTICS OF THE PROTOTYPICAL TAXIS OF NON-SIMULTANEITY (based on the statements with taxis prepositions)

Problem statement. This article examines the issue of actualizing oft he categorial semantics of the prototypical taxis of non-simultaneity in the statements of the German, Dutch, English and Russian languages. Results. Statements of the primary type with taxis prepositions of temporal semantics seit, vor, nach, bis, до, перед, накануне, после, na, vanaaf, voor, voorafgaand, sedert, sinds, tot, after, before, since, following were examined. In the course of the study, it was revealed that temporal-primary-taxis and iterative-primary-taxis categorial situations of non-simultaneity, as well as quantitative-primary-taxis categorial situations of strict non-simultaneity (in the presence of temporary delimitators of non-simultaneity) are actualized in statements of this type. Conclusion. In the examined statements of the primary type containing the taxis prepositions of temporal semantics primary taxis categorical situations of non-simultaneity (following and preceding) are actualized. These statements are characterized by primary taxis values of non-simultaneity in their «pure form» and represent primary taxis semantic syncretic complexes. Taxis prepositions of temporal semantics, as well as various aspectual, temporal and taxis quantifiers (adverbials and attributes), have a prototypical character when updating taxis values of strict and non-strict non-simultaneity.

Fillmore’s Case Grammar in the Short Story Al-Yatîm By Fatima Mohsen

Background: Case grammar emerged with Fillmore's response to developments in transformational grammar, making it a subject of interest to syntacticians and semanticists for several decades. Purpose: This study aims to (1) uncover the dalâm modality of Fatima Mohsen's Al-Yatîm short story; and (2) to describe the dalâm proposition of Fatima Mohsen's Al-Yatîm short story based on the grammatical theory of the case of Charles J Fillmore. Method: This research includes descriptive-qualitative research. The primary data sources used are lâh excerpts da lâm short stories Al-Yatîm by Fatima Mohsen, and secondary data sources used there arelâhbooks and journals related to research studies. The technique of data and data inthis study islâhthe read-record technique. The data analysis techniques used are therelâhdata analysis Miles and Huberman. Results and Discussion: The results of this research include: (1) thereare 5 types of modalities, namely time (madhi, p, mustaqbal), sign (janib madhi, janib hal, janib mustaqbal), negation (lâ, lâ ysa , lan), adbverbs (taroddad, darojah), and mood (irshadiyah); and (2)there are 8 types of propositional cases, namely agentif cases (dhomir ana, dhomir mustatir nahnu, waliid, wahiid, at-tiflu as-shoghir), experiens cases (tahmilu), instrument cases (jihaz), objective cases (zaujatahu, kalâmaha), source cases (ta'uda, i'adah, ajro' ), the case of the purpose (i lâ at-thobib, ila al-mabna), the case of the locative (ma'mal, daaril aytam, maktabil mudiroh), and the case of time (tsalâ one asyhur, at-tsanawatil khams). Conclusions and Implications: Case grammar studies not only focus on English grammar, but can also be applied to all grammatical languages including Arabic. In the grammar of the Fillmore case, each case has a semantic role in the sentence aiming to exp lâ in the relâtionship between the predicate and the noun phrase. With this research, readers are expected to be able to understand the grammar of cases, and be able to apply it in the learning process. Re lâ ted to the suggestion that needs to be looked at for future researchers is to examine more references and other theories re lâted to case grammar, as well as be better prepared in the process of data analysis so that they can get good research results. In addition, researchers understand that this study is far from perfect. Therefore, researchers ask for constructive advice from readers so that in the future they can present better research or other written works.

Zur Erforschung von Korrelationen zwischen verschiedenen Fehlertypen bei der maschinellen Übersetzung aus dem Deutschen ins Slowakische

Abstract We focus on examining the impact of machine translation (MT) error rate on adequacy and fluency in machine-translated journalistic texts. German is the source language, with significant polysynthetic features in the formation of composites, and the target language is Slovak, with predominantly inflected features. We analyse twelve error categories, which are incorporated into the categorical framework for the analysis of MT errors and correspond to the four-member core MQM-DQF error typology. The results show that the most significant errors are in the categories of lexical semantics, syntactic-semantic correlativeness and grammar.

THE INDONESIAN NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST BATTERY (INTB): PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES, PRELIMINARY NORMATIVE SCORES, THE UNDERLYING COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTS, AND THE EFFECTS OF AGE AND EDUCATION

Indonesia lacks standardized and adapted neuropsychological tests, which hampers their use in clinical practice. Recently, an Indonesian Neuropsychological Consortium has initiated the adaptation of ten internationally commonly used tests for use in Indonesia. Here, we report the analyses of the psychometric properties, including preliminary normative data, the reliability, the underlying cognitive constructs, and the effects of age and education on these constructs as validity indicators.Four hundred ninety healthy adults living on Java Island participated in this study. All subjects completed the Indonesian Neuropsychological Test Battery (INTB) for diagnosis of various cognitive functions. The test-retest reliability was determined in a parallel study with fifty participants.Underlying cognitive constructs were assessed with Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed seven constructs that accounted for 62.84% of the total variance, and the goodness of fit of the model was good. ANOVAs showed significant effects of age on six constructs (i.e., speed of visuospatial information processing, auditory short-term and working memory, speed and inhibitory control, and verbal learning ability). Age effects were not found for executive internal language. All constructs showed effects of education, except for recall and verbal learning ability.Interestingly, as expected, not all constructs showed the same age-dependent decline, and if present, all seem to be unique. It is concluded that the psychometric properties of the INTB justify their usage for the Indonesian population.

Dialectica logical principles: not only rules

Abstract Gödel’s Dialectica interpretation was designed to obtain the consistency of Peano arithmetic via a proof of consistency of Heyting arithmetic and double negation. In recent years, proof theoretic transformations (the so-called proof interpretations) based on Gödel’s Dialectica interpretation have been used systematically to extract new content from proofs and so the interpretation has found relevant applications in several areas of mathematics and computer science. Following our previous work on ‘Gödel fibrations’, we present a (hyper)doctrine characterization of the Dialectica, which corresponds exactly to the logical description of the interpretation. To show that, we derive the soundness of the interpretation of the implication connective, as expounded on by Spector and Troelstra, in the categorical model. This requires extra logical principles, going beyond intuitionistic logic, namely Markov Principle and the Independence of Premise principle, as well as some choice. We show how these principles are satisfied in the categorical setting, establishing a tight (internal language) correspondence between the logical system and the categorical framework. We make sure that this tight correspondence extends to the use of the principles above, instead of the weaker rules we had proved earlier on. This tight correspondence should come handy not only when discussing the traditional applications of the Dialectica but also when dealing with newer uses in modelling games or concurrency theory.

Learners' Languages

In "Backprop as functor", the authors show that the fundamental elements of deep learning -- gradient descent and backpropagation -- can be conceptualized as a strong monoidal functor Para(Euc)$\to$Learn from the category of parameterized Euclidean spaces to that of learners, a category developed explicitly to capture parameter update and backpropagation. It was soon realized that there is an isomorphism Learn$\cong$Para(Slens), where Slens is the symmetric monoidal category of simple lenses as used in functional programming. In this note, we observe that Slens is a full subcategory of Poly, the category of polynomial functors in one variable, via the functor $A\mapsto Ay^A$. Using the fact that (Poly,$\otimes$) is monoidal closed, we show that a map $A\to B$ in Para(Slens) has a natural interpretation in terms of dynamical systems (more precisely, generalized Moore machines) whose interface is the internal-hom type $[Ay^A,By^B]$. Finally, we review the fact that the category p-Coalg of dynamical systems on any $p \in$ Poly forms a topos, and consider the logical propositions that can be stated in its internal language. We give gradient descent as an example, and we conclude by discussing some directions for future work.

Exponential Modalities and Complementarity (extended abstract)

The exponential modalities of linear logic have been used by various authors to model infinite-dimensional quantum systems. This paper explains how these modalities can also give rise to the complementarity principle of quantum mechanics. The paper uses a formulation of quantum systems based on dagger-linear logic, whose categorical semantics lies in mixed unitary categories, and a formulation of measurement therein. The main result exhibits a complementary system as the result of measurements on free exponential modalities. Recalling that, in linear logic, exponential modalities have two distinct but dual components, ! and ?, this shows how these components under measurement become "compacted" into the usual notion of complementary Frobenius algebras from categorical quantum mechanics.

A Categorical Semantics for Bounded Petri Nets

We provide a categorical semantics for bounded Petri nets, both in the collective- and individual-token philosophy. In both cases, we describe the process of bounding a net internally, by just constructing new categories of executions of a net using comonads, and externally, using lax-monoidal-lax functors. Our external semantics is non-local, meaning that tokens are endowed with properties that say something about the global state of the net. We then prove, in both cases, that the internal and external constructions are equivalent, by using machinery built on top of the Grothendieck construction. The individual-token case is harder, as it requires a more explicit reliance on abstract methods.

A Categorical Semantics of Fuzzy Concepts in Conceptual Spaces

We define a symmetric monoidal category modelling fuzzy concepts and fuzzy conceptual reasoning within G\"ardenfors' framework of conceptual (convex) spaces. We propose log-concave functions as models of fuzzy concepts, showing that these are the most general choice satisfying a criterion due to G\"ardenfors and which are well-behaved compositionally. We then generalise these to define the category of log-concave probabilistic channels between convex spaces, which allows one to model fuzzy reasoning with noisy inputs, and provides a novel example of a Markov category.

Jacobians and Gradients for Cartesian Differential Categories

Cartesian differential categories come equipped with a differential combinator that formalizes the directional derivative from multivariable calculus. Cartesian differential categories provide a categorical semantics of the differential lambda-calculus and have also found applications in causal computation, incremental computation, game theory, differentiable programming, and machine learning. There has recently been a desire to provide a (coordinate-free) characterization of Jacobians and gradients in Cartesian differential categories. One's first attempt might be to consider Cartesian differential categories which are Cartesian closed, such as models of the differential lambda-calculus, and then take the curry of the derivative. Unfortunately, this approach excludes numerous important examples of Cartesian differential categories such as the category of real smooth functions. In this paper, we introduce linearly closed Cartesian differential categories, which are Cartesian differential categories that have an internal hom of linear maps, a bilinear evaluation map, and the ability to curry maps which are linear in their second argument. As such, the Jacobian of a map is defined as the curry of its derivative. Many well-known examples of Cartesian differential categories are linearly closed, such as, in particular, the category of real smooth functions. We also explain how a Cartesian closed differential category is linearly closed if and only if a certain linear idempotent on the internal hom splits. To define the gradient of a map, one must be able to define the transpose of the Jacobian, which can be done in a Cartesian reverse differential category. Thus, we define the gradient of a map to be the curry of its reverse derivative and show this equals the transpose of its Jacobian. We also explain how a linearly closed Cartesian reverse differential category is precisely a linearly closed Cartesian differential category with an appropriate notion of transpose.

Native Type Theory

Native type systems are those in which type constructors are derived from term constructors, as well as the constructors of predicate logic and intuitionistic type theory. We present a method to construct native type systems for a broad class of languages, lambda-theories with equality, by embedding such a theory into the internal language of its topos of presheaves. Native types provide total specification of the structure of terms; and by internalizing transition systems, native type systems serve to reason about structure and behavior simultaneously. The construction is functorial, thereby providing a shared framework of higher-order reasoning for many languages, including programming languages.