Increase In Household Income Research Articles

Social capital impacts on income of farmers in Dong Thap Muoi region, Long An province

It is a given that many people are concerned about their financial situations. Households in the agricultural areas, in particular, are highly concerned, as the agriculture sector faces several hazards owing to natural and environmental causes. As a result, academics are constantly interested in discovering the factors that influence household income. The goal of this study is to analyze whether social capital is a significant factor in increasing household income. Unlike earlier research, this paper examines the factors that influence family income using both economic and social theories. Research scales and models are provided based on Putnam's social capital theory and the findings of prior investigations. The study model comprises 19 observed variables, seven of which are connected to individual and household characteristics, and twelve of which represent the household's social capital. In Long An province of Dong Thap Muoi region, data was collected from 701 families. The findings of data analysis using the multivariate regression (OLS) approach reveal that social capital is certainly one of the major variables that impact household income. Based on the findings of data analysis, the study makes a number of recommendations to help boost household income through building social capital.

СУТНІСТЬ ФІНАНСОВОЇ БЕЗПЕКИ ДОМОГОСПОДАРСТВ ТА НАПРЯМИ ЇЇ ЗАБЕЗПЕЧЕННЯ

Today, the priority of economic development of any state, including Ukraine, is to ensure high financial security of the state, which, in turn, is one of the main components of national security of Ukraine. In the country's financial security system at the micro level, the basic component is the financial security of the household. The proper functioning of the financial security system is complicated by a number of problems, among which are: low household incomes, high unemployment and poverty, shadowing of the economy. The lack of a comprehensive approach to the study of financial security of households, the objective need for research in this area, the relevance of the issue and its practical significance determine the choice of research topic. Scientific publications of leading domestic scientists have become methodological and informational. Methods of analysis, comparison, generalization, system approach, abstraction and grouping were used during the research. The article examines the essence of the concept of "financial security of the household" in the financial security of the state. The object and subjects of financial security of the household are defined. It is proved that today the problem of ensuring the financial security of households has become extremely relevant. This fact is closely related to the globalization of the economy and integration processes that contribute to changing the welfare of households. The paper notes that the financial security of households has its own specific features. Three main functions of the system of ensuring the financial security of the household (preventive, prognostic and managerial) are described. There are five main areas of financial security of households, namely: increasing household income, balancing household income and expenditure, using self-insurance, insurance using the capabilities of insurance companies and legal protection of households. The article also lists the forms of ensuring the financial security of households.

ФОРМУВАННЯ КОНЦЕПТУАЛЬНИХ ЗАСАД УПРАВЛІННЯ ДІЯЛЬНІСТЮ ДОМОГОСПОДАРСТВ

The purpose of writing the article is to determine the conceptual foundations of household management, the practical implementation of which will help increase their role and importance in the socio-economic development of the state and society. The main indicators, that characterize the state and development of households, were reviewed and analyzed in the article. The definition of economic activity of a household is given, in the context of which the economic functions it performs are analyzed. It is established that the economic activity of the household is realized through the functions of production, consumption, savings and investment. The main components of economic activity are studied, the understanding of which will ensure the adoption of effective management decisions by households. The main components include legal, production, marketing, commercial, financial, infrastructure and investment activities. External and internal factors, influencing the activity of the household, are established. External factors include conditions that do not depend or weakly depend on the actions and decisions of households. Internal factors are divided into macroeconomic (household size, turnover of household funds, the degree of their depreciation and the potential for renewal) and microeconomic (level of education, age, number of household members, level of employment and efficiency). The conceptual bases of household activity management are defined: the purpose, tasks, principles and functions. It is indicated that the purpose of household management determining the future state of the household is aimed . The principles of management include: purposefulness, consideration of needs and interests, dynamic balance, efficiency, activation, interdependence. The functions of household management, which include planning, organization, motivation, analysis and control, are defined. It is established that the relationship of all elements of the conceptual framework in their use in practice, taking into account the rules of state regulation will ensure effective management decisions that will increase household income and, consequently, their well-being.

Competitive loan-groups and economic achievements of microcredit loan users in a group-lending program: Estimating the impacts of a self-selected loan group on the household income of its members: Evidence from India

Abstract This study sheds light on self-selected loan groups formed under a microcredit group-lending program and estimates how and the extent to which post-determined group-related factors reflecting the group atmosphere and rivalry among the group members affect the economic achievements of the loan users. Based on data from Maharashtra State, India, this study finds that social homogeneity and monitoring among members work as building blocks to increase the household income of a loan user, while fairness and frequent meetings with other members work as stumbling blocks. The likelihood of increasing household income is higher if a member joins a competitive loan group in which socially homogenous members gather and monitor each other but meet less frequently and are not granted equal treatment. These results suggest that pre-existing conditions are not the only factors responsible for economic success and that the posterior environment surrounding microcredit users also contributes to increasing their household income. In our study, rather than creating a comfortable egalitarian loan group, the formation of a competitive loan group can be a posterior factor leading to economic success.

Under Italy's Sun or in an Economic Shadow - The Effects of Regional Banking Systems on Economic Development in the Italian Mezzogiorno Regions

Italy exhibits a very divided economy with an economic powerhouse in its northern regions and an economically less developed South. At the same time, the North of Italy is also characterized by a historically decentralized financial system with small and local banks that fit to the SMEs of the region's industrial sector. By means of correlated random effects-regressions for the 21 Italian NUTS2-regions, we show that this decentralized banking system helps northern Italy in buffering economic shocks from financial crises. The relative number of banks, the size of banks, and their focus on traditional interest rate business increase economic wealth and household incomes while reducing unemployment. We further find that the economically strong North did not enter a race to the bottom to its southern neighbors during and after the sovereign debt crisis and benefits from its more diverse banking system. Meanwhile, the southern regions could also not catch up.

An assessment of pig feed diversity amongst smallholder pig farmers in Northern Uganda

Pig production has a high potential for increasing household incomes of both rural and urban smallholder farmers. However, this opportunity is constrained by the high cost of feeds and its scarcity. As such, farmers usually feed pigs on multiple feed resources within their reach. Although the diversity of pig feeds is important in overcoming the challenges, there is limited information on how this can be achieved, and the factors influencing it. Using a cross-section of 240 pig farming households, this study assessed how socio-demographic, technical and institutional factors influenced household pig feed diversity. Statistical analysis was performed at p < 0.1, p < 0.05 and p < 0.01), respectively. Results showed that marital status (p = 0.012), household size (p = 0.085), number of crop (p = 0.008) and other livestock enterprises (p = 0.055), ownership of mobile phone (p = 0.091), buying feeds (p = 0.005), and use of radio (p = 0.032) and friend as sources (p = 0.002) of agricultural information had a positive significant influence on household pig feed diversity. Additionally, age (p = 0.042), land size owned (p = 0.085) and breed [rearing local (p = 0.009) and crosses (p = 0.000) as opposed to exotic breeds] had a negative significant influence on household pig feed diversity. The study recommends that focus should be placed on improving access to farm inputs, agricultural and market information for smallholder pig farmers so as to improve pig feed diversity and subsequently enhance production and productivity. Radio and mobile phone technologies are opportunities that can support information sharing.

U.S.-China Economic Tensions—Will Biden Get Right What Trump Got Wrong?

U.S.-China Economic Tensions—Will Biden Get Right What Trump Got Wrong? Yukon Huang (bio) Although President Biden has vowed to reverse many of Trump's policies, both administrations see China as a strategic threat and great-power rival. This reflects popular sentiments expressed in various polls that China has become an "overwhelming geopolitical concern."1 Biden has characterized the U.S.-China confrontation as "a battle between the utility of democracies in the twenty-first century and autocracies."2 At the same time, Biden wants to avoid a total collapse in U.S.-China relations since China is a partner as well as competitor and rival, depending on the issue. If tensions are inevitable, then Biden's challenge is to differentiate between real issues where progress is desired and several misguided concerns that absorbed Trump's attention. The Trump administration's misguided concerns The Trump administration's first mistake was failing to recognize that trade deficits are not the central problem. President Trump's trade war with China was fueled by his belief that China was responsible for the United States' huge trade deficits, which contributed to lost manufacturing jobs and reduced competitiveness.3 However, trade deficits are not a good indicator of the state of the economy.4 For example, when an economy is doing well, increasing household incomes result in more imports and larger trade deficits. Furthermore, the United States has been running trade deficits for over forty years, long before China became a major economic power and exporter. In other words, the trade balances of the United States and China are not linked. When U.S. trade deficits soared in the late 1990s and early 2000s, China was not running significant trade surpluses. Later, when China's surpluses rose sharply, U.S. deficits declined. U.S. trade balances are largely driven by budget deficits and China's balances by rising household savings rates with urbanization—factors that have little to do with one another.5 Even if the goal had been to reduce the bilateral trade imbalance, the Trump administration's policy would still have made little sense. China cannot buy enough from the United States to bridge the trade deficit, in part because the latter does not produce enough of the high-end consumer goods or the raw materials that the former desires. Instead, Europe supplies China with much of its high-end consumer goods while Latin America and Africa provide much of its raw materials. Moreover, U.S. restrictions prevent sales of the high-tech products China wants due to reasons of national security. Such restrictions may be strategically aimed, but their impact on trade imbalances should not be underestimated.6 Sales of military equipment generated $175 billion for the United States in 2020.7 Aside from the understandable banning of military sales to China, U.S. export earnings are reduced by tightening licensing requirements imposed on China's purchases of hi-tech products for civilian use. In addition, more than 300 Chinese companies have been added over the past year to the Commerce Department's Entity List, which further restricts access to U.S. hi-tech products.8 Cutting off sales to Chinese firms like Huawei, ZTE, and other industrial leaders not only threatens their operational existence, but also represents substantial lost revenues for American suppliers. The U.S. Semiconductor Association, [End Page 246] for example, estimates losses of $30–50 billion if such restrictions are fully implemented.9 Therefore, it is no surprise that Trump's Phase One Trade Agreement committing China to buy more failed to achieve its desired effect of boosting U.S. exports to China and lowering its overall trade deficits.10 Second, Trump echoed popular but misguided sentiments that U.S. firms have been investing too much in China at the expense of the U.S. economy. Over the past two decades, only 1–2 percent of U.S. foreign investment has been going to China.11 By contrast, the European Union (EU), which is comparable to the United States in economic size, has been investing roughly twice as much. So the question is why the United States invests so little in China rather than so much...

English

Soil organic resource management practices such as use of green manure, cover crops, improved fallows, mulch, animal manure, compost and residue retention are options that promote the environment and potentially increase farmer crop yields and income. However, there have been low levels of adoption of most of these practices, and their ability to improve crop yields and farmer income has come into question. The objective of this study was to estimate the effects of the aforementioned practices on maize yields and income in Chipata district of Zambia. Using Matching algorithm strategies on data from 303 households, the study observed that only cover crops and improved fallows, significantly increased maize productivity by 16 - 21 and 22 - 31%, respectively. Only green manure and improved fallows increased household income by 26 - 28 and 48 - 67%, respectively. Since green manure did not show any significant influence on the production of maize, this later result could imply that the practice is expressing its significant effect on household income through cash crops such as cotton, soybean, tobacco and vegetables, which are common in the study area. The non-significance in the contribution of most of the practices to private benefits could be affecting the rates at which the practices are adopted. Since the significant contribution of the practices towards environmental sustainability is not debatable, there is need for payment of some mark-up to the adopters of the practices which could go towards compensation for production of environmental services through the practices. This will increase the private benefits accrued from adopting the practices, with the spill-over effects of increasing adoptability potential of the practices. Key words: Maize yields, income, organic resource management, matching strategies, Zambia.

Strategi Pengembangan Kegiatan Ekonomi Kreatif PKK di Kota Tabanan terhadap Peningkatan Pendapatan Anggota

The female workforce has productivity that plays a role and has the potential to support increased household income in rural areas. To provide guidance for women's productivity, a forum in the form of a PKK is needed that can be used by women. The purpose of this study was to identify the internal and external conditions of the PKK, as well as to determine the strategies that the PKK could use in Tabanan City in developing creative economic activities to increase member income. This research was conducted in Tabanan Regency at the PKK of each Village which was carried out from April to August 2020. Respondents consisted of 36 respondents from the PKK and 12 respondents from Kelian Dinas Banjar from the PKK. This research is a descriptive study that uses a strategic management approach, combining SWOT and AHP analysis for the best strategic decision making. The results of the research obtained are internal conditions in the development of PKK creative economic activities in Tabanan City, where the main strength factor is a solid group institution. The main weakness factors are lack of information on getting training activities and limitations in obtaining capital. Furthermore, external conditions in the development of PKK creative economic activities in Tabanan City, where the opportunity factor is good, namely the PKK group has a good image in the village government. For a major threat factor, namely the ease of duplicating products by competitors. So that we get the best strategy that can be applied in the development of PKK creative economic activities in Tabanan City, namely increasing the workforce of distributors to increase sales, in which product marketing requires product affordability to be well accepted by consumers.

Urbanization and its Impact on Production Diversity and Income of Farm Households: An Economic Analysis Across Rural-Urban Interface of Bengaluru

The study was conducted in North of Bengaluru with an aim to analyze effect of urbanization on production diversity, farm income and factors influencing the same across the rural-urban interface. The required data was collected randomly from 80 farmers each under rural, transition and urban gradients. Multiple linear regression was used to determine the drivers of farm income. Herfindahl index was employed to capture the extent of production diversification. Results revealed that the rural farmers diversified from food crops to vegetable and flower crops over the years. Whereas, farmers of transition and urban gradients chose to grow high value horticulture crops instead of food crops. During 2019, the extent of diversification was more in transition (0.21) and rural (0.25) gradients compared to urban (0.29) gradient. In rural gradients, the major share of farm income was from cereals (31.79 %) followed by vegetables (28.65 %) and perennials (17.88 %) in 2014 but the major share was replaced by vegetables (28.69 %) and flower crops (19.98) in 2019. In transition and urban gradients, the major source of farm income was from vegetables in 2014 which was later substituted by fruit crops in 2019. Over the period of five years, the percentage increase in average farm income of households was highest in urban gradient (143.07 %) followed by rural (140.15 %) and transition (110.50 %) gradients. Land holding size, education, borrowed capital and investment in farming emerged as the principal determinants of farm income. As a whole, the study concludes that, urbanization led investment on high value crops through crop diversification which played a significant role in augmenting the farm income.

Assessing the impacts of land use and climate interactions on beekeeping livelihoods in the Taita Hills, Kenya

ABSTRACT Beekeeping is commonly adopted as an additional livelihood activity that can help smallholder farmers diversify and enhance their livelihoods. However, it is unclear whether it is resilient to environmental shocks and stresses. This article investigates beekeepers’ experiences and perceptions about challenges to beekeeping in the Taita Hills Mountains, Kenya. Key findings demonstrated that beekeeping has the capacity to substantially increase household income, but there are several challenges which affect beekeeping’s sustainability considering predictions around climate and land use change. Bee population decline due to pesticide use was seen as a major challenge across the altitudinal range. In the highland areas deforestation, land use conflicts and cold weather were key issues; whereas in the lowlands water availability and the associated impacts on floral availability were the primary concerns of beekeepers.

Analysis of Mustahik Economic Empowerment Model in Pekanbaru

In Pekanbaru, Indonesia, mustahik empowerment has two model approaches for running the mustahik economic empowerment programs, namely individual empowerment and groups empowerment. This paper aims to analyze whether two model approach of mustahik empowerment can increase household income and maximize alleviate poverty. To analyze those models, we used qualitative and statistics non-parametric method. After an investigation, from two models empowerment approach that have been implemented in Pekanbaru, researcher found that mustahik income in groups and individualy relatively same result after getting an empowerment program. This result is confirmed by the non-parametric statistical analysis using the Mann-Whitney test. The statistical test result shows that the two mustahik empowerment models implemented by zakat institutions in Pekanbaru still did not perform maximally in increasing mustahik household income and poverty alleviation because the result is still below 50 percent by using the World Bank and BAZNAS standard of poverty line. Nevertheless, those models are success to alleviate poverty if use the Government standard of poverty line. This result implies that the zakat institutions to should find another approach to reach the BAZNAS or World Bank standard of poverty line. &#x0D; In Pekanbaru, Indonesia, mustahik empowerment has two model approaches for running the mustahik economic empowerment programs, namely individual empowerment and groups empowerment. This paper aims to analyze whether two model approach of mustahik empowerment can increase household income and maximize alleviate poverty. To analyze those models, we used qualitative and statistics non-parametric method. After an investigation, from two models empowerment approach that have been implemented in Pekanbaru, researcher found that mustahik income in groups and individualy relatively same result after getting an empowerment program. This result is confirmed by the non-parametric statistical analysis using the Mann-Whitney test. The statistical test result shows that the two mustahik empowerment models implemented by zakat institutions in Pekanbaru still did not perform maximally in increasing mustahik household income and poverty alleviation because the result is still below 50 percent by using the World Bank and BAZNAS standard of poverty line. Nevertheless, those models are success to alleviate poverty if use the Government standard of poverty line. This result implies that the zakat institutions to should find another approach to reach the BAZNAS or World Bank standard of poverty line.

UPAYA PEMEINTAH DESA DALAM MENYOSIALISASIKAN LAMPIRAN KEPUTUSAN MENTERI NO 8 TAHUN 2017 TENTANG PEMANFAATAN LAHAN PEKARANGAN RUMAH UNTUK MENINGKATKAN KESEJAHTERAAN KELUARGA (Studi di Desa Wamboule Kecamatan Kulisusu Utara Kabupaten Buton Utara)

This study aims to determine the village government's efforts in disseminating the ministerial decision No. 8 of 2017 concerning land use home gardens to improve the welfare of the family and community responses to the socialization of land use homestead in the village of North Kec.Kulisusu Kab.Buton Wamboule North. This study used descriptive qualitative data collection techniques are observation, interview, documentation. Informants of this research consisted of 10 people, which is 3 people as key informants (The Villages) and 7 as an additional informant (Society).These results indicate that the government's lack of socialization village homestead on land use so there are many people who do not understand and do not take advantage of home gardens as productive land, then to continue this program of village government distribute plant seeds every 3 months to the public. People who use land has obtained good results and enough help to meet the needs of everyday family consumption and can reduce and increase household income by selling crops with obtain Rp20,000-Rp25,000 per day. While people who do not take advantage of homestead land caused because not understand the purpose of the land use yard so it is not keen to implement this program. It is also no desire of people's self-due to lazy and do not like eating vegetables.

Unmasking partnerships for agricultural innovation: the realities of a research–private sector partnership in Lombok, Indonesia

ABSTRACT Research institute–private sector partnerships are promoted as a mechanism to increase the scale and sustainability of research impact, especially where government extension services are constrained. Such partnerships are often framed as simple transactional or contractual arrangements. This paper traces the evolution of a multi-lateral partnership between a public university, agri-input supplier, finance provider and local government in North and East Lombok. The partnership aimed to increase household incomes by introducing new practices for maize and pulse production, but in order to do so, had to enable farmers to access affordable credit and inputs in a timely manner. Analysis of the partnership over three years highlights its dynamic nature and the importance of a consistent champion who aligns the competing institutional incentives and aspirations of actors. It also highlights how partners bear different types and degrees of risk across different stages of the partnership. The findings affirm the potential for research–private sector partnerships to contribute to agricultural innovation but highlight a more complex and messy process than is acknowledged in the literature. A more realistic understanding of partnership and innovation processes needs to inform how schemes and innovation support mechanisms are designed if they are to deliver on the promise of scale and sustainability.

The impact of iron-biofortified bean adoption on bean productivity, consumption, purchases and sales.

Staple food crops tend to be low in micronutrients; therefore, individuals whose diets rely heavily on them can suffer from micronutrient deficiency. Biofortification addresses this issue through the breeding of staple crops that are micronutrient-dense and high yielding. One such crop is iron-biofortified beans. Ten iron-biofortified bean varieties were released between 2010 and 2012 in Rwanda, a country with high rates of bean production and consumption, to address iron deficiency. This study evaluates the effect of the most widely adopted of these varieties, RWR2245, on household yield, land cultivated under beans, bean consumption, purchases, and sales. Because the adoption decision could be endogenous, we use a control function approach to quantify the impacts of adoption. RWR2245 provides a yield gain of 20%-49% over traditional bush bean varieties. In our preferred model specification, we find that over a 12-month period, growing RWR2245 for at least one out of two annual growing seasons increases the length of time beans are consumed from own production by 0.64months (19-20days), reduces the length of time beans are purchased for consumption by 0.73months (22-23days), and increases the probability of selling beans by 12%. Adoption can thus improve household nutrition via two channels: primarily by increasing iron intake via substituting biofortified harvested beans for less nutrient-dense beans from the market, and additionally by increasing household income that can be spent on nutritious foods through the reduction in bean purchases and increased likelihood of selling beans. Moreover, the sale of iron-biofortified beans implies the availability of iron-dense food in markets, also benefiting households that purchase beans. These findings are promising for the continued adoption of iron-biofortified beans in Rwanda and elsewhere and provide evidence that biofortified crops are an effective investment for nutrition, food security, and poverty reduction.

Household Economic Exclusion among Danish Children: Evaluating Independent and Joint Risks of Income Poverty and Parental Labor Market Exclusion

Low household income and social exclusion increase children’s risk for unsuccessful transitions to adulthood. Yet we know little about children’s cumulative risk of experiencing poverty and parental labor market exclusion during childhood and to what extent these circumstances co-occur. We estimate annual separate and joint cumulative period risks for experiencing living in a household with income below the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development poverty line (poverty) and a low-work intensity household (labor market exclusion) for children in Denmark from 2003 to 2018. Both indicators identify similar children, with the largest overlap between the joint indicator of both poverty and labor market exclusion (economic exclusion) and the income poverty indicator. Furthermore, considering estimates produced from poverty and labor market exclusion measures, as well as from a combined measure, helps us demonstrate the role of business cycle volatility in each: procyclical with respect to poverty and countercyclical with respect labor market exclusion.

PEMBERDAYAAN EKONOMI PEREMPUAN MELALUI EDUKASI KONSEP EKONOMI KREATIF INDUSTRI RUMAH TANGGA DI KECAMATAN BINJAI KOTA

Today's digital Era demands creativity to continue innovating in improving women's productivity, especially on fulfilling daily household consumption needs. This is closely related to women's empowerment because as a partner of the household can participate in increasing household income. The creativity of ideas in innovating produces a product that adds value to the economy is called the creative economy. The goal of devotion to this society enhances understanding, knowledge, and insight to women the importance of the creative economy in increasing family income. Implementation of a creative economy in the early stages, can not be done only on one person, therefore, it need support from several parties so effective when the formed a business group. This is what is a tangible form of this devotion activity. The dedication partners consist of RMOL Sumut, PKK women, IWAPI women, and Genre communities in the Binjai City district. Method of devotion done with the lecture, discussion question/answer problem, and the final stage is an alternative solution offered. From this community devotion activity, all participants were enthusiastic about the deepening of knowledge and insight into the concept of creative economics. And there were 20 business groups in which each group consisted of 5 people. So much devotion activities are important to continue to be implemented continually to increase household income to prosperity.

PENINGKATAN PEREKONOMIAN ACEH MELALUI SEKTOR PERTANIAN: ANALISIS TABEL INPUT OUTPUT TAHUN 2012

This study aims the strategy to increase the agricultural sector of Aceh. With analize the Aceh's input output table, it seen that the agricultural sector has a multiplier effect 1.30 on Aceh's economic growth; 0.27 to increase household income; and 0.47 on employment. Based on the simulation results, if there is an increase in government spending by 5 percent to the agricultural sector, there will be an economic growth 0.00570 percent, an increase in household income 0,00018 percent, and an increase in employment absorption 0.00004 percent. However, if there is an increase in investment in the agricultural sector by 5 percent, an increase in output of economic growth will be seen by 0.08797 percent, additional household income 0.00271 percent, and an increase in employment 0,00035. This indicates that the APBD allocated to investment in the agricultural sector is key to Aceh's efficient economic growth and effective poverty reduction through employment. Therefore, if the government wants to increase the output of the agricultural sector, it can be done by investing in this sector in the form of improving technology through the distribution of agricultural equipment such as tractors, rice thresher machines and the construction of irrigation. Keywords : APBD, Investment, Economy, Output Input Table, Agriculture Sector.

Do weather extremes induce people to move? Evidence from Vietnam

This study examines the effect of extreme weather events on inter-province migration in Vietnam using a migration gravity model. It finds that high rainfall extremes encourage the out-migration of highly educated people but attracts the in-migration of the poorly educated. A possible reason is that high rainfall increases household income from agricultural production but reduces wage income. Thus, high rainfall extremes increase the migration of the highly educated, who mainly have salaried jobs, while attracting the poorly educated, who are mainly self-employed in agricultural work. Low temperature extremes in source provinces reduce out-migration, while low temperature extremes in destination provinces increase in-migration, possibly because very hot weather reduces wages and affect people’s health, and as a result influences migration.

American Children's Screen Time: Diminished Returns of Household Income in Black Families.

While increased household income is associated with overall decreased screen time for children, less is known about the effect of racial variation on this association. According to Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) theory, family income and other economic resources show weaker association with children's developmental, behavioral, and health outcomes for racialized groups such as black families, due to the effect of racism and social stratification. In this study, we investigated the association, by race, between family income and children's screen time, as a proxy of screen time. This longitudinal study followed 15,022 American children aged 9-11 over a 1-year period. The data came from the baseline of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The independent variable was family income, and it was categorized as a three-level nominal variable. The dependent variable, screen time, was a continuous variable. Ethnicity, gender, parental education, and marital status were the covariates. The results showed that family income was inversely associated with children's screen time. However, there was a weaker inverse association seen in black families when compared with white families. This was documented by a significant statistical interaction between race and family income on children's screen time. Diminished association between family income and children's screen time for black families, compared with white families, is similar to MDRs and reflects a health risk to high-income black children. In a society where race and skin color determine opportunities and treatment by society, children from middle class black families remain at risk across multiple domains. We should not assume that income similarly promotes the health of all racial and ethnic groups. Addressing health and behavioral inequalities requires interventions that go beyond equalizing socioeconomic resources for black families. Marginalization, racism, and poverty interfere with the normal family income-related development of American children.