High Chloride Levels Research Articles

Automatic method for the determination of total mercury in fresh and saline waters and sediments

Acid—dichromate and ultraviolet digestion are used sequentially in an automated system to extract mercury from particulate matter and oxidize organomercurials in briny waters and sediments. Mercury is then determined by reduction with tin(II) and cold-vapor atomic absorption spectrometry. The flow-through system is completely automatic and can accommodate samples with particulate solids up to 1 g l -1. The detection limit is 0.02 μg Hg l -1 in water or 20 μg Hg kg -1 in sediments. Both waters and sediments with high chloride levels can be analysed without interference at a rate of 30 samples per hour.

Effect of Chloride on Nitrate Accumulation in Pawpaw (Carica papaya L.)

An accumulation of chloride in leaves and fruits of the papaw is associated with high levels of nitrate in these tissues. High chloride levels in tissues did not affect plant growth, protein synthesis or the level of endogenous nitrate reductase acitvity. The amount of nitrate in the non-metabolic pool of leaves and fruits was significantly increased in the presence of chloride.

Serum and urine electrolytes in primigravid Africans during pregnancy and postnatal period

Serum and urine electrolyte changes were studied in 55 primigravid African women during pregnancy and the postnatal period. The findings suggest that there is a fall in the serum sodium in the first trimester, which is followed by a gradual and steady rise throughout pregnancy. The serum potassium did not show any consistent pattern, while the serum chloride generally followed that of the serum sodium. These findings are similar to those reported for the Caucasian, although the African subject displays a lower serum sodium level and a much higher chloride level throughout pregnancy and the postnatal period. It is suggested that the reduction in sodium excretion noted in the third trimester is a reflection of the increasing sodium concentration in the blood with advancing pregnancy. The few patients who developed oedema and pre-eclampsia excreted relatively larger amounts of sodium in the puerperium.

The effect of Cl- upon the sensitivity of starch-containing and starch-deficient stomata and guard cell protoplasts towards potassium ions, fusicoccin and abscisic acid

Chloride ions are necessary to compensate for the positively charged potassium ions imported into guard cells of Allium cepa L. during stomatal opening. Therefore an external Cl(-) supply of intact Allium plants is important. But high levels of chloride have been found to reduce the sensitivity of the starch-lacking stomata and isolated guard cell protoplasts (GCPs) from Allium to potassium ions, fusicoccin and abscisic acid. Furthermore, with high levels of chloride, malate anions disappear from the guard cells of Allium, a finding which contrasts with situation in Vicia where the stomatal sensitivity to K(+) ions, fusicoccin and ABA is not influenced by Cl(-) ions and malate levels are unaffected. It is suggested that the absence of malate as a proton yielding primer inhibits the mechanism of H(+)/K(+) exchange in Allium.

Influence of rootstocks on the accumulation of chloride, sodium and potassium in grapevines

The seasonal course of chloride, sodium and potassium accumulation in leaves and berries of Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Sultana and Muscat Gordo Blanco scions was studied in relation to rootstock effects (own roots v. Salt Creek, Harmony and Schwarzmann rootstocks). Vines on rootstocks generally contained less chloride, but more potassium, in petioles and berries than did own-rooted vines. The extent of the effect, however, was dependent upon scion variety. Cabernet Sauvignon differed from the other scions in that vines on Harmony stock accumulated more sodium than did own-rooted vines. High levels of chloride, sodium and potassium were retained by petioles and laminae at abscission. Some possible consequences of rootstock-induced changes in the ionic composition of leaves and berries are discussed.

Fine structure and localization of adenosine triphosphatase in the halophyte Suaeda maritima.

The fine structure and localization of ATP-ase activity has been investigated in cells of the halophyte,Suaeda maritima. No significant differences were observed in the fine structure ofSuaeda as compared with that of mesophytes, nor were there any differences found betweenSuaeda cells grown in the presence or absence of high levels of sodium chloride. ATP-ase activity was localized predominantly in the plasmalemma and the cell walls of leaf cells in particular showed an interesting crenated appearance; these featured are discussed in relation to the ionic relationships of halophytes. The cell vacuoles contained a variety of inclusion bodies and showed evidence of considerable autophagic activity.

Preparation and properties of a carbonate ion-selective membrane electrode

A liquid membrane ion-selective electrode has been prepared for the measurement of carbonate ion activities in solutions containing high levels of hydrogen carbonate and chloride. The electrode exhibits Nernstian response in the approximate range 1O -2–1O -7 M carbonate, and has a fast response and low noise level under most conditions. In the physiologically important pH region, hydroxide ion does not interfere. Detailed information is given on the composition and properties of the active membrane phase.

Comparative haematology, haemochrmistry and electrocardiography of the slender loris and bonnet monkey.

The famale loris had a higher erythrocyte count than the male whereas in the bonnet monkey the converse occurred. Sex differences were seen in the neutrophil and leucocyte counts, but not in the eosinophils and monocytes. The loris exhibited high potassium, magnesium, chloride and sulphate levels, while the bonnet monkey showed a relatively high level of sugar and haemoglobin. The loris showed higher percentages of blood cholesterol and urea. There were species-dependent variations in the plasma proteins independent of the sex. The electrocardiographic patterns did not reveal sex differences in either animal. However the conventional II lead revealed species specific differences in the duration and the component wave form amplitudes of these animals. The haematological and electrocardiographic differences have been correlated with differences in physiology and physical activity patterns of these animals. The present data suggests that a gradual reduction in the number of lymphocytes and an increase in the number of neutrophils occurred during the course of the evolution of primates.

The Effects of Roads on Populations of Small Mammals

Little is known about the effects of roads on populations of animals. Pienaar (1968) summarized the possible effects of roads on organisms in a national park, but most workers have been concerned with mortality of animals along roadways (e.g. Simmons 1938; Knobloch 1939; Haugen 1944; McClure 1951; Hodson 1966; Evenden 1971; Bellis & Graves 1971). Roads affect many mammals by facilitating access to food or by increasing the food supply, but they may lead to damaging or fatal accidents. Bellis & Graves (1971) reported that Odocoileus virginiana* often fed on grassy road shoulders and as a result were frequently hit by vehicles. Taylor (1971) related the numerous skeletal fractures in east African viverrids to their habit of catching prey along roadways. In contrast, road verges provide a ready supply of grass and this has allowed some microtines to flourish and even expand their ranges (Baker 1971). In other cases, road verges provide important habitats for conservation of plants and animals (Anon. 1966; Kabat & Thompson 1963; Joselyn, Warnock & Etter 1968). However, roadside soil and vegetation are often contaminated by lead and other heavy metals used as additives in gasoline (Lagerwerff & Specht 1970; Smith 1971) and vegetation may be severely injured by high levels of sodium chloride (Hofstra & Hall 1971). Roads and railways have been found to inhibit the movements of feral Rangifer tarandus, but not those of domestic R. tarandus (Klein 1971). Studies of the effects of roadways on the dispersal of mammals are lacking although Buckner (1957) reported some data for Clethrionomys gapperi. This study documents the effects of roadways on the movements of small and mediumsized mammals (small mammals less -than 700 g; medium-sized mammals 700 to approx. 14 000 g) obtained from capture-recapture studies and from direct observation of roadways. The term road 'clearance' used in this paper, refers to the distance an animal had to move between forest margins to cross the roadway. Clearance may be equivalent to right-of-way, but this is not always the case.

Growth requirements and development of Cypripedium reginae in axenic culture

In preliminary studies of terrestrial orchids of the Thunder Bay region Cypripedium reginae showed greatest promise as a species for the investigation of the effects of temperature, light, and nutrients. The orchid was grown from seed in sterile cultures on agar slopes of media consisting of various combinations of minerals, sugars, casein hydrolysate, yeast extract, potato extract, the vitamins thiamine, pantothenic acid, and pyridoxine, and the aminopurines kinetin, kinetin riboside, 6(γ,γ-dimethylallylamino)purine, and zeatin.Better germination and growth occurred at 25 °C vs. 15 °C. Germination was better in the dark than in the light. The young protocorms are adversely affected by light until a crucial stage of development is reached. Premature exposure to light, even at the low intensity of 70 lm/ft2, caused mortality.There was no germination on sterile-distilled-water agar or on mineral media alone. Mineral–sugar media produced fairly healthy plantlets; better results were obtained with sucrose, dextrose, and fructose, respectively. Cypripedium reginae was highly intolerant of the casein hydrolysate and yeast extract supplements. Potato extract at 10% of the original concentration was very beneficial.In some cultures the presence of ammonium ions could be responsible for a marked enhancement of growth (and a slight stimulation of germination irrespective of the presence of sugar). The right nitrate/ammonium ratio may be critical. Low levels of nitrate or high levels of chloride or both hindered responses to iron supplements. Also, C. reginae may have a low calcium requirement.The effects of the three vitamins were restricted to the leaves, causing them to broaden to natural proportions while those in the controls remained spindly. Thus, C. reginae may be heterotrophic for those vitamins.There was no morphogenetic response to the four aminopurines. They impeded growth equally in the light as in the dark.

The Determination of Bromide in Color Developers Containing High Levels of Chloride

The Determination of Bromide in Color Developers Containing High Levels of Chloride

Effect of Mineral Mixture Composition on Chick Growth and Intestinal pH’s

Three experiments were conducted with growing chicks (1) to determine the optimum level of chloride necessary for the bioassay of protein quality of fish meals as the sole source of dietary protein, (2) to study the interrelation of high levels of sodium and potassium with the level of chloride and sulfate, and (3) to determine the effect of these ionic changes on the pH of the contents in different portion s of the intestines.The results indicate that fish meals when fed as sole source protein to chicks require very low dietary supplements of chloride or none at all to maximize growth.High levels of chloride in dietary mineral mixtures depress chick growth and can be overcome by increasing the sodium level. The growth depression due to high chloride level is aggravated if the sodium content is low and the potassium is high. A balance between dietary sodium and potassium levels must be maintained and also between these cations and the chloride content.No relationship was observed between the growth responses and the pH’s of the intestinal contents of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Evidently other factors are involved in the growth depression due to excessive dietary chloride level.

CHLORIDE UPTAKE BY VARIOUS TURFGRASS SPECIES AND CULTIVARS

Twelve cultivars representing eight grass species were each grown in a sand/vermiculite medium in the greenhouse, fed six solutions varying in chloride content for 140 days, and cut at lawn height. Six harvests were obtained and analyzed for chloride uptake. Visual ratings and yields indicated that the grasses tolerate relatively high chloride levels for a considerable time. Chloride uptake increased with time and increasing chloride content of the solutions. Uptake was less from alkaline than from acid solutions. Highland bentgrass (Agrostis tenuis Sibth.), Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) and timothy (Phleum pratense L.) were the least tolerant, while Norlea perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and Kentucky 31 tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) were the most tolerant to chlorides. Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) and creeping red fescue (Festuca rubra L.) were intermediate in this respect.

The Role of Chloride in the Corrosion Caused by Flue Gases and Their Deposits

The role of chloride in the corrosion of oil- and coal-fired boilers and gas turbines, by flue gases and their deposits, is discussed, on the basis of both experimental and theoretical studies. It is concluded that in most boilers, the presence of chloride in the fuel will not result in any serious increase in the rate of corrosion of plant components. On the other hand, a number of situations are identified, which can arise in both boilers and gas turbines, in which high chloride levels in the fuel can be associated with enhanced rates of corrosion.

Renal lithium excretion in man

Renal lithium excretion in man

The effect of diuretics on electrolyte distribution in the rat kidney.

SummaryThe effect of diuretics on the distribution of sodium (Na) and potassium (K) in the kidney was studied in alcohol anaesthetized rats during osmotic diuresis. As previously reported, these rats had a small gradient from cortex to papilla in the sodium concentration of renal tissue. Vasopressin increased this gradient by increasing the concentration of sodium in the medulla and papilla.When either mercaptomerin or hydrochlorothiazide was administered in therapeutic doses, the concentrations of sodium in the papilla were initially high and were further increased by vasopressin. These results were very similar to those obtained when infusions containing high levels of sodium chloride (NaCl) were administered to normal rats.Prior administration of ethacrynic acid caused very high concentrations of sodium in the papilla which were not significantly increased after vasopressin. Ethacrynie acid did not prevent the conscious rat from producing a concentrated urine when deprived of water.This suggests that these drugs do not exert their diuretic effect by decreasing the extra tubular osmotic pressure around the collecting ducts.

Some Further Observations on Goiter in Lebanon

An incidence of goiter of 25.4 per cent was found among school children residing in a mountain village in Lebanon. This incidence was highest in girls between nine and twelve years of age; the incidence appeared to be related to socioeconomic status. Twenty-six families from the area were Selected to participate in a double-blind controlled salt supplementation program. For twelve months, half the families were given iodized salt and the other half plain salt. Clinical examinations were conducted and the urinary excretion of iodine was measured initially and at intervals through the study. In the group given iodized salt, the incidence of goiter decreased from 30 to 12 per cent, whereas in the control group there was a decrease from 41 to 36 per cent. Initial values for urinary iodine were low in all subjects of both groups; after the distribution of salt, excretion values increased significantly in the group given supplements. Studies of the thyroidal uptake of Il31 showed high values in subjects with and without goiters in the control group; the mean values for the group given iodized salt were greatly decreased. The results of a thiocyanate test in a group of subjects with goiters were negative. Dietary information failed to reveal an unusually high consumption of goitrogenic foods. However, high salt intake was observed; this observation was supported by the finding, in general, of high levels of urinary chloride. The possible relationship of high salt intake to goiter in human subjects was examined, based on information from experiments with animals. It was concluded that iodine deficiency was the primary cause of goiter in the area in which the study was conducted. Other factors which may have contributed to the local problem of goiter are discussed.

Acid-base equilibrium after intestinal urinary diversion

Acid-base equilibrium and renal function were observed on the cases of ureterosigmoidostomy, sigmoidocutaneus ureterostomy (transplantation of one ureter to sigmoid colon and one ureter to skin), ileocystoplasty, uretero-ileo-cystoneostomy, and some other conditions. The studies of sigmoidal absorption of urine and ammonium chloride solutions were made on the dogs, and possible causes for electrolyte imbalance were discussed.1) The development of hyperchloremic acidosis was related both to the types of operation and the renal function.2) Polyuria and low urine electrolyte concentrations were usually obsurved in the cases of ileocystoplasty and ureterostomy in acidosis. The urine of such cases showed an impaired ability to excrete hydrogen ions and ammonia and to reabsorb bicarbonate.3) In the cases of ileocystoplasty the ileal urine contained more sodium and bicarbonate, less pottasium, chloride and urea than the renal urine.4) The instillation of hypotonic ammonium chloride solution into dog's sigmoid effected a decrease in blood chloride levels, while hypertonic ammonium chloide solution effected an increase.5) In the cases of urinary diversions acidosis may occur when renal function is involved and the kidney is no longer able to eliminate acid loads to the body. The sites of involvement are mainly renal tubles, and the patients are in the tendency to be dehydrated on account of continuous loss of water and elecyrolytes. Reabsorption of urinary constituents and alkali loss from the bowel increase acid loads and accelerate dehydration. The high blood chloride levels would be due to a compensatory mechanism, whereby the total anion (hence cation) concentration is maintained relatively constant.6) For the treatment of hyperchloremic acidosis sodium bicarbonate is remarkably effective.7) The 3 year and 5 year survival rates of intestinal urinary diversions were 20.0 per cent and 9.1 per cent for ureterosigmoidostomy, 50.0 per cent and 37.5 per cent for sigmoidocutaneus ureterostomy, 66.7 per cent and 60.0 per cent for ileocystoplasty, and 80.0 per cent and 66.7 per cent for uretero-ileocystoneostomy. This order was actually the same as that of the incidence of hyperchloremic acidosis.

Interrelationships between Dietary Levels of Sodium, Chlorine and Potassium

A series of experiments was conducted on the dietary relationship of the cations, sodium and potassium, and the anions, chloride and sulfate. The data showed that excesses of dietary chloride or sulfate ions supplied as glutamic acid hydrochloride, calcium chloride or calcium sulfate markedly depressed growth rate of chicks unless these anions were balanced with equimolar levels of sodium or potassium supplied in the diet with a metabolizable anion such as glutamate or carbonate. Excess sodium supplied as sodium glutamate was also detrimental unless a high level of chloride in one of the above forms was also present. Chicks tolerated excesses of potassium better than excesses of sodium. These experiments provide a probable explanation of many discrepant results reported in the literature on the dietary requirements of chicks and rats for sodium and potassium.

Factors Affecting the Fluxes of Potassium and Chloride Ions in Nitella translucens

A more complete study of ionic concentrations and fluxes in the giant internodal cells of Nitella translucens has been made. The vacuolar concentrations were 76 mM K and 170 mM Cl. The content of the chloroplast layer was 135 mmicromoles K/cm(2) and 215 mmicromoles Cl/cm(2); in a layer 9 micro thick these correspond to concentrations of 150 mM K and 240 mM Cl. Such a high level of chloride requires active transport of chloride into the cytoplasm, either at the plasmalemma or at the membranes bounding the cytoplasmic particles; it cannot be achieved by active transport of chloride only at the tonoplast. With concentrations of 0.1 mM K and 1.3 mM Cl outside, the fluxes into the cytoplasm had mean values of 1.0 to 1.4 micromicromoles K/cm(2)sec. and 2.1 to 2.8 micromicromoles Cl/cm(2)sec.; the corresponding fluxes from the cytoplasm to the vacuole were about 110 micromicromoles K/cm(2)sec. and 175 micromicromoles Clcm(2)sec. The transfer of both potassium and chloride to the vacuole under different conditions appeared to be correlated with the uptake of chloride into the cytoplasm. It is suggested that two separate processes are involved in the active accumulation of salts in the vacuole-an active uptake of chloride in the cytoplasm and a subsequent transfer of salt to the vacuole. It may be that the second process involves the formation of small vesicles in the cytoplasm and their subsequent discharge into the central vacuole.