High Chloride Levels Research Articles

Biological approaches for disposing and reusing chemical wastewater

A serial study on the integrated disposal and utilization of chemical industrial wastewater containing high levels of organic compounds, mercury, nutrients and chlorides was carried out with biological approaches in Hangu region, Tianjin city, China. Results indicated that the quality of wastewater could be improved by a biological stabilization pond system under appropriate load of organic matter and well operation. The effluent from this stabilization pond could not be used for irrigation due to high salinity, but it may be used for fish culture. Because of high levels of mercury, the fish living in this effluent could not be used as food for both humans and breeding sables ( Martes zibellina L.) whereas it could be served as a part of diet for growing sables. Results demonstrated that this chemical wastewater could be controlled and reused through ecological techniques combined with environmental engineering approaches. This system could improve environmental quality and enhance economic.

Sodium silicate-based alkali-activated slag mortars: Part II. The retarding effect of additions of sodium chloride or malic acid

In this paper we investigate the hydration of alkali-activated slag cements in the presence of heavy contamination with chloride (up to 13% by weight as NaCl with respect to slag). Reference samples were made by activating slag with sodium silicate solution. Companion samples in which a high level of sodium chloride was added to the mix water were found, based on strength development and calorimetry, to be severely retarded. When the known retarder malic acid was also added to the mixes, the mix that also contained sodium chloride showed no significant heat development in the first 10 days. Pore expression experiments indicated that the bulk of the chloride remained dissolved in the pore solution. XRD indicated that no new crystalline hydrates were formed when NaCl was added to the system. In the systems with added malic acids or sodium chloride, the same calorimetry peaks were observed, albeit retarded, but with similar integrated heat outputs, suggesting that the basic mechanism of hydration was not altered by the retarding additions.

Human brain capillary endothelium: 2-arachidonoglycerol (endocannabinoid) interacts with endothelin-1.

In brain, the regulatory mechanism of the endothelial reactivity to nitric oxide and endothelin-1 may involve Ca(2+), cytoskeleton, and vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein changes mediated by the cGMP/cGMP kinase system.(1) Endothelium of human brain capillaries or microvessels is used to examine the interplay of endothelin-1 with the putative vasorelaxant 2-arachidonoyl glycerol, an endogenous cannabimimetic derivative of arachidonic acid. This study demonstrates that 2-arachidonoyl glycerol counteracts Ca(2+) mobilization and cytoskeleton rearrangement induced by endothelin-1. This event is independent of nitric oxide, cyclooxygenase, and lipoxygenase and is mediated in part by cannabimimetic CB1 receptor, G protein, phosphoinositol signal transduction pathway, and Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels. The induced rearrangements of cellular cytoskeleton (actin or vimentin) are partly prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C or high levels of potassium chloride. The 2-arachidonoyl glycerol-induced phosphorylation of vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein is mediated by cAMP. These findings suggest that 2-arachidonoyl glycerol may contribute to the regulation of cerebral capillary and microvascular function.

Sulfate and chloride concentrations in Texas aquifers

Median sulfate and chloride concentrations in groundwater were calculated for 244 Texas counties from measurements at 8236 water wells. The data were mapped and analyzed with a geographic information system (GIS). Concentration clusters for both solutes were highest in north-central, west, and south Texas. Thirty-four counties had median sulfate levels above the secondary standard of 250 mg/L, and 31 counties registered median chloride concentrations above 250 mg/L. County median concentrations ranged from <1.5 to 1,953 mg/L for sulfate, and from 6 to 1,275 mg/L for chloride. Various factors contribute to high sulfate and chloride levels in Texas aquifers, including mineral constituents of aquifers, seepage of saline water from nearby formations, coastal saltwater intrusion, irrigation return flow, and oil/gas production. Ten counties in central and northeast Texas lack data and warrant additional monitoring.

Analysis of highly saline samples by capillary zone electrophoresis: enhanced direct UV detection of inorganic anions using on-capillary preconcentration and clean-up techniques

The ability to analyze samples with disparate levels of analyte and matrix ions is among the important benefits defining the practical utility of modern capillary electrophoresis. To compensate for the sensitivity limitations regarding trace-level inorganic anions, a number of on-line approaches that should offer an improved S/N ratio in direct UV detection were examined. The novel use of reversed pre-electrophoresis (at the applied voltage opposite to the separation voltage) made it possible to efficiently remove the most part of high chloride levels from the sample and hence to lower the background signal and to inject increased quantities of fast analyte anions. Specifically, by taking these advantages the sensitivity response of iodide was improved by a factor of 5 over normal CE mode. Using isotachophoretic sample stacking, a two-fold increase in detectability was obtained for moderately mobile anions, nitrate and nitrite, that corresponds to the minimum detectable concentrations close to their natural occurrences in seawater. Furthermore, field-amplified sample injection at increased electrolyte-to-sample matrix concentration ratios enabled the maximum S/N enhancement, with detection limits at the level of 10 −6 M and lower in the presence of ≥5·10 4-fold molar excess of chloride.

Capillary electrophoretic determination of oxalate in amniotic fluid

A capillary electrophoretic (CE) assay for oxalate has been applied to the quantitative determination of free oxalate in amniotic fluid. Indirect absorbance detection of oxalate is accomplished with a chromate-based background electrolyte modified with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). Detection interference due to the presence of high levels (≈4mg/ml) of inorganic chloride is eliminated through a direct sample clean-up procedure based on cation (Ag+-form) resins. Separation interference from amniotic fluid proteins is prevented through the use of a simple aqueous-based dilution procedure. This method for the determination of oxalate in amniotic fluid provides precision of ≈5% relative standard deviation (RSD). Within-day precisions for the oxalate response and migration time are better than 3% RSD and 1% RSD, respectively. Between-day precisions for the oxalate response and migration time are better than 6% RSD and 3% RSD, respectively. The analytical recovery of oxalate (1000ng/ml) spiked into amniotic fluid was better than 96%. The limit of detection (LOD) for the method is ≈100ng/ml oxalate. This method also shows promising results for the determination of oxalate in human blood plasma samples.

Influence of wastewater vs groundwater on youngCitrus trees

The use of wastewater as an alternative water resource for irrigation needs specific studies to evaluate its effect on different soils and crops. Young Citrus trees have been irrigated with wastewater from a sewage treatment plant during three consecutive seasons and the growth, leaf mineral status and fruit quality measured. Some differences have been found between groundwater and wastewater composition. Sodium ion, chloride ion, organic matter and boron concentrations were always higher in wastewater. In contrast, high nitrate levels were found in groundwater, probably due to aquifer contamination. In all seasons the values of soil-analysed elements were within the optimal ranges for this kind of crop and soil. Levels of sodium, chloride and boron in leaf tissue were below the toxic levels for Citrus. Leaf nitrogen content was in the optimal nutrition range and no significant difference was observed between samples from trees irrigated with wastewater and groundwater. Both growth and fruit quality parameters were unaffected by the high levels of sodium, chloride and boron in wastewater. Collectively our data show that no detrimental effects are found after using wastewater for irrigation of young Citrus trees. More importantly, fertiliser rates could be lowered significantly without reducing yields or affecting leaf nutrient levels when using reclaimed wastewater. Thus reclaimed wastewater appears to be a suitable alternative water resource for irrigation of Citrus trees. © 2000 Society of Chemical Industry

Photochemical oxidation and flow injection conductivity determination of dissolved organic carbon in estuarine and coastal waters

A modified version of the flow injection method for the determination of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) developed by Koshy et al. is described. This method is capable of DOC measurements in the presence of high levels of chloride and has a method detection limit of 0.8 mg C/L, a linear response range of 0–35 mg/L, carbon recovery of 98 ± 9%, and a sample throughput of 60 h−1. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Lab Robotics and Automation 12:157–163, 2000

Freshwater diatoms from Ile de la Possession (Crozet Archipelago, sub-Antarctica): an ecological assessment

An ecological study of freshwater waterbodies on Ile de la Possession (Crozet Archipelago, Antarctica) was undertaken during the austral summer of 1997/1998. Both diatom and chemistry data were collected. A highly diverse diatom flora of 210 taxa, belonging to 32 genera, was identified from 127 samples. The most abundant genera were Fragilaria, Achnanthes and Navicula. Principal Component Analysis was used to classify the samples on the basis of their chemical characteristics. The analysis revealed that pH and chloride were the main factors dividing the samples into three categories: rivers, more acid lakes, and lakes with higher chloride content. Species assemblages correspond well with this division. Forward selection with Monte Carlo permutations selected pH, chloride, habitat and hardness. Based on the analysis, four groups of samples can be made: rivers, acid lakes, circumneutral lakes with low chloride concentrations and coastal pools with relatively high chloride levels. The results also indicate that a specific diatom flora exists on the island, which is comparable to that of other islands in the same area (Kerguelen and Macquarie).

Blooms of the cylindrospermopsin containing cyanobacterium, Aphanizomenon ovalisporum (Forti), in newly constructed lakes, Queensland, Australia

The cyanobacterium, Aphanizomenon ovalisporum (Forti) is reported herein for the first time in Australia. Its distribution appears to be restricted to an isolated subtropical region which has distinctive water quality parameters including ready availability of nutrients and relatively high chloride and hardness levels. Blooms of A. ovalisporum in Queensland, Australia, formed a thick brown surface scum from spring to autumn in newly constructed shallow lakes. During such blooms, the water and cellular material were both found to contain cylindrospermopsin, a water soluble toxin that produced fatty livers with hepatocyte necrosis in mice similar to the toxicity produced by Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Wolosz.). Toxin levels in freeze-dried A. ovalisporum are approximately 25% of those present in freeze-dried C. raciborskii. However, A. ovalisporum appears to release more of the produced toxin into the water body than does C. raciborskii. Sequencing of the 16s ribosomal RNA gene of A. ovalisporum isolated from the Australian bloom showed that it was virtually identical to A. ovalisporum isolated from Lake Kinneret. Much lower homology was found between A. ovalisporum and other species of that genus (i.e., A. flos-aquae and A. gracile) or C. raciborskii, which is known to produce the toxin cylindrospermopsin. ©1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Environ Toxicol 14: 167–177, 1999

Blooms of the cylindrospermopsin containing cyanobacterium,Aphanizomenon ovalisporum (Forti), in newly constructed lakes, Queensland, Australia

The cyanobacterium, Aphanizomenon ovalisporum (Forti) is reported herein for the first time in Australia. Its distribution appears to be restricted to an isolated subtropical region which has distinctive water quality parameters including ready availability of nutrients and relatively high chloride and hardness levels. Blooms of A. ovalisporum in Queensland, Australia, formed a thick brown surface scum from spring to autumn in newly constructed shallow lakes. During such blooms, the water and cellular material were both found to contain cylindrospermopsin, a water soluble toxin that produced fatty livers with hepatocyte necrosis in mice similar to the toxicity produced by Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Wolosz.). Toxin levels in freeze-dried A. ovalisporum are approximately 25% of those present in freeze-dried C. raciborskii. However, A. ovalisporum appears to release more of the produced toxin into the water body than does C. raciborskii. Sequencing of the 16s ribosomal RNA gene of A. ovalisporum isolated from the Australian bloom showed that it was virtually identical to A. ovalisporum isolated from Lake Kinneret. Much lower homology was found between A. ovalisporum and other species of that genus (i.e., A. flos-aquae and A. gracile) or C. raciborskii, which is known to produce the toxin cylindrospermopsin. ©1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Environ Toxicol 14: 167–177, 1999

Assessing water quality changes in the lakes of the northeastern United States using sediment diatoms

Diatom assemblages were selected as indicators of lake condition and to assess historical lake water quality changes in 257 lakes in the northeastern United States. The "top" (surface sediments, present-day) and "bottom" (generally from &gt;30 cm deep, representing historical conditions) samples from sediment cores collected from lakes and reservoirs were analyzed for diatom assemblages. The distribution of diatom species was closely related to several environmental variables, primarily lake water pH, total phosphorus, and chloride. Using weighted-averaging calibration and regression approaches, we constructed predictive models to infer these variables from the diatom assemblages. The diatom-based inference models were then used to assess the current status of lake water quality and to assess historical changes in lake water conditions in natural lakes over the past 150 years. Changes were also assessed in reservoirs. Population estimates of historical changes in limnological variables were made for all lakes of the northeast United States and also for lakes in the Adirondacks, New England Uplands, and Coastal Lowlands/Plateau ecoregions. The extent of cultural impact has been quite variable among the ecoregions, with marked water quality deterioration occurring in hundreds of lakes. Chloride and phosphorus levels have increased, especially in lakes that currently have high concentrations. Low-pH lakes have become more common in all three ecoregions. The maximum abundance of low-pH lakes was recorded in the Adirondacks, an area receiving the highest acidic precipitation in the northeast. In the Coastal Lowlands/Plateau, there has been a clear increase in eutrophic lakes, as inferred by total phosphorus. This was accompanied by a marked increase in the number of lakes with high chloride levels.

Congenital chloride diarrhoea in Kuwait: a clinical reappraisal

Congenital chloride diarrhoea (CCD) is a recessively inherited disorder of chloride transport in the distal ileum and colon. Congenital chloride diarrhoea is a common metabolic disorder in Kuwait with an incidence of 1/3200. Clinical findings in 14 children with CCD are reported over a period of 4 years. Maternal polyhydramnios, abdominal distension, watery diarrhoea, and a high faecal chloride level > 90 mmol/l were the cardinal features in the neonatal period. In spite of the classical features of this disease 75 per cent of our cases were diagnosed beyond the neonatal period and all demonstrated chronic diarrhoea and failure to thrive, with hypochloraemia, hypokalaemia, and metabolic alkalosis. The practice of ultrasonic examination for pregnant women with polyhydramnios and, particularly, for those with previously affected siblings led to early identification of new cases among our population recently. The antenatal ultrasonic examination showed dilated intestinal loops which suggest CCD. The diagnosis was confirmed by a high faecal chloride level.

Recurrent Pseudomonas bronchopneumonia and other symptoms as in cystic fibrosis in a child with type I pseudohypoaldosteronism

We report a child with multiple target organ pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1 with frequent recurrent pulmonary infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Pasteurella multocida and high levels of chloride in sweat, urine and nasal secretion. Repetitive faecal chymotrypsin samples have all shown pathological values in spite of no other sign of exocrine pancreas dysfunction. The similarities with cystic fibrosis and the importance of the salt content in bronchial fluid are discussed.

Recurrent Pseudomonas bronchopneumonia and other symptoms as in cystic fibrosis in a child with type I pseudohypoaldosteronism

We report a child with multiple target organ pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1 with frequent recurrent pulmonary infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Pasteurella multocida and high levels of chloride in sweat, urine and nasal secretion. Repetitive faecal chymotrypsin samples have all shown pathological values in spite of no other sign of exocrine pancreas dysfunction. The similarities with cystic fibrosis and the importance of the salt content in bronchial fluid are discussed.

Elevated concentrations and synthetic pathways of trimethylamine oxide and urea in some teleost fishes of McMurdo Sound, Antarctica

Levels of trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) and urea in various tissues of several teleost fishes of McMurdo Sound, Antarctica were determined. TMAO levels in muscle tended to be high, with levels in several species exceeding 140 mM kg-1 wet weight. The high levels appear to be necessary to osmotically balance high levels of sodium and chloride in the blood of these species. In two species (Dissostichus mawsoni and Gymnodraco acuticeps), significant levels of TMAO (> 80 mM l-1) were also found in the blood, while virtually no TMAO was found in the blood of a related, temperate water species. In other Antarctic species, serum TMAO levels varied from moderate to low levels. Urea levels in several species were in the range 15–25 mM l-1, which is higher than those in temperate water fishes. The high TMAO and urea levels make important contributions to the fishes' high osmolarities, and thus help to lower freezing points. These data are consistent with previous data obtained from some northern fishes. Fishes with high serum TMAO levels had liver TMAase activity whereas those with no serum TMAO did not. Activity levels of uricolytic enzymes in D. mawsoni and G. acuticeps were not noticeably different from those of temperate water fishes. These species showed moderate to high activities of three ornithine urea cycle enzymes (CPS, OCT and arginase) but low activity of the argininosuccinate synthetase/argininosuccinyl lyase system. These data suggest that a dietary arginine/arginase system is an important source of urea in these species.

Fixation-induced shrinkage of Reissner's membrane and its potential influence on the assessment of endolymph volume

The quantification of endolymph volume by histological techniques or by magnetic resonance (MR) microscopy requires the inner ear to be first treated with chemical fixatives. If the fixative induces soft-tissue shrinkage, it would tend to return a distended Reissner's membrane towards a straight position, since this membrane is anchored to bone at its medial and lateral edges. The goal of this study was to determine the degree of Reissner's membrane shrinkage induced by different fixation protocols to establish methods which minimize tissue shrinkage. Fragments of fresh Reissner's membrane were dissected from isolated cochleae in an artificial perilymph. Specimens were viewed with an inverted microscope during infusion of fixatives, and changes recorded on video tape. Size changes of the specimen were quantified, usually over a 20 min period. Heidenhain-Susa, a fixative which is widely used in histological studies of hydropic cochleae, caused substantial shrinkage of Reissner's membrane, decreasing the length of specimens by an average of 15.1%. Other fixation procedures induced far less shrinkage. The use of 3X/0 glutaraldehyde in Hanks' balanced salt solution produced a mean length decrease of only 0.3%. The inclusion in the fixation medium of 4.5`/0 mercuric chloride, corresponding to the concentration which is present in Heidenhain-Susa and which acts to increase the contrast of Reissner's membrane in MR microscopy, contributes significantly to specimen shrinkage. We can conclude that the degree of endolymphatic hydrops may be underestimated in specimens fixed with media containing high levels of mercuric chloride.

Spatial differences in macroinvertebrate community structure in springs in southeastern Ontario in relation to their chemical and physical environments

This study examined the benthic macroinvertebrate communities of 20 springs in southeastern Ontario in relation to major water chemical variables and temperature. Significant differences were evident among the spring communities, and a TWINSPAN classification showed three major groups, which were associated with different levels of urbanization and water chemical conditions. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) ordinations indicated that the major environmental gradient was related to temperature and NH4 and to two springs adjacent to a landfill site. CCA ordination of a sub-data set excluding these latter two sites together with 3 closely related variables better illustrated the response of spring communities to different levels of urbanization. The strongest relationship to emerge was that between taxon occurrences and chloride, a major contaminant in groundwater in the study area and believed to be derived from road salt. Several taxa were closely associated with high chloride levels (e.g., Tipulidae and Ceratopogonidae), whereas others occurred only in springs with low chloride levels (e.g., Gammarus pseudolimnaeus and Turbellaria). The possibility of using spring macroinvertebrates as biological indicators of chloride contamination of groundwater is discussed.

Relationship between chloride and nitrate and its effect on growth and mineral composition of avocado and citrus plants

Two rootstocks of avocado (Persea americana Mill.), the salt‐tolerant ‘Degania‐113’ and the salt‐sensitive ‘Smith’, and two rootstocks of citrus, the salt‐tolerant ‘Cleopatra’ mandarin (Citrus reshni Hort. ex Tan) and the salt‐sensitive ‘Troyer’ citrange (Poncirus trifoliata x Citrus sinensis [L.] Osbeck), were grown in a sandy soil and irrigated daily with nutrient solutions containing various chloride concentrations. Increasing the concentration of chloride resulted in elevated chloride levels in all avocado plant parts, and toxic symptoms that were more pronounced in the ‘Smith’ than in the ‘Degania‐113’ avocado rootstock. When leaves of both rootstocks had accumulated similar chloride levels and showed scorching damage, the leaves of ‘Degania‐113’ abscised, while those of ‘Smith’ did not. High chloride reduced the total dry matter yield of the root more than that of the shoot, decreasing the “root: shoot”; dry weight ratio in both rootstocks. Addition of nitrate to the irrigation water reduced chloride accumulation in the plant and alleviated its adverse effects. Accumulation of nitrogen in the plant exceeded that of chloride in all cases. High nitrate reduced phosphorus levels in the plant and caused chlorosis in young leaves. High chloride partially reversed this effect. Citrus rootstocks responded similarly, but leaves of the chloride‐sensitive ‘Troyer’ accumulated more chloride than ‘Cleopatra’. High chloride resulted in scorching damage in the leaves and branches of ‘Troyer’, but not in ‘Cleopatra’. Nitrate reduced chloride accumulation and toxic symptoms as well as boron levels in the leaves. The results of this study suggests that water containing high chloride levels may be used to irrigate avocado and citrus orchards, provided that nitrate is supplied continuously at a molar concentration equivalent to half that of chloride. Our results also suggest that a nitrate supplement applied to citrus will reduce the undesirable uptake of boron. The difference in mode of resistance to chloride between avocado and citrus rootstocks is discussed.

Leaf analysis finds high levels of chloride and low levels of zinc and manganese in Louisiana citrus1

A survey of the nutrient status of the citrus groves of Louisiana was conducted to determine the extent of possible deficient or toxic areas of the region and to help determine the accuracy of critical values developed in the major citrus‐growing regions of the world and their relevance to a region where critical values had not been developed. The nutrient status of 29 orchards of Washington navel orange (Citrus sinensis) and satsuma mandarin (Citrus unshiu) trees on P. trifoliate rootstock representing 90% of the citrus region in Louisiana were determined using critical values from the literature. Twenty percent of survey samples ranked excessively high in chloride indicating possible toxicity from recent salt‐water intrusion. Chloride contents were higher in groves closer to the Gulf of Mexico. More than 60% of the leaf samples analyzed were diagnosed as having very low concentrations of zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn). Soil tests of surface soils to a 15‐cm depth did not prove useful in predicting Zn and Mn nutrition of trees, as all soil samples had medium or high levels of DTPA‐extractable Zn and Mn. Phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) were low in more than 20% of the leaf samples and high in less than 5% of the samples. Calcium (Ca) in the young leaves was low or very low in 95% of the samples, but no samples from older leaves were low or very low in Ca. These results indicate possible transient effects, errors in the critical values used, or environmental conditions that inhibit Ca uptake.