Faster Reaction Times Research Articles

A thin film resistive humidity sensor based on polymer and carbon black nanoparticle composites

This paper proposes a resistive humidity sensor that uses a carbon-black and polyvinyl alcohol composites thin film, fabricated with a unique film coating method for thinner thickness and higher sensitivity. Improving the sensitivity of sensing films is still of great importance in the research field of gas sensors. The humidity sensor devices with thin composite film and microelectrode structure are fabricated on the glass substrate for a low cost and a simple fabrication process. The sensor gives a rapid response for humidity levels from 10.9% relative humidity (RH) to 73.7% RH, and the response time is about 5.77 s. Experimental results reveal that the sensor has good sensitivity, reproducibility, fast reaction time, and wide range. In addition to humidity, the sensor also responds well to gases such as ethanol. The proposed gas sensor in this paper can be applied to the other combinations of polymers and nanoparticles to form new gas sensors, which have the potential to be used as a gas sensor array for detecting the composition of complex gases such as volatile organic components.

Implicit aggressive self-concept in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: Results from an approach-avoidance task

Background and objectivesPatients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) have reported higher anger and aggression than healthy individuals in previous studies using explicit measures. However, studies using implicit measures have demonstrated mixed results. The aim of the present study was to investigate implicit aggressiveness in OCD using an approach-avoidance task (AAT). MethodsSeventy-eight patients with OCD and 37 healthy controls underwent structured clinical interviews and measures of anger, OCD, and depressive symptoms as well as a computerized AAT that included aggressive, peaceful, negative, and positive stimuli. ResultsIn line with previous studies, patients with OCD reported higher scores on explicit anger. With respect to the implicit measure, repeated measures ANOVAs did not show any differences in mean reaction times for pushing compared to pulling aggressive versus peaceful and negative versus positive words. However, analyses of specific OCD symptom dimensions demonstrated significantly faster reaction times for pulling compared to pushing aggressive words for patients with high scores in the OCD symptom dimensions obsessing and hoarding. LimitationsEighty percent of patients with OCD showed psychiatric comorbidities and all were seeking treatment. ConclusionThe present study supports previous studies reporting the absence of higher aggressiveness in patients with OCD compared to healthy controls using implicit measures. However, in contrast to previous studies, we found an implicit approach bias towards aggressive self-statements for OCD patients scoring high in the symptom dimensions obsessing and hoarding compared to healthy controls. Future studies should further elucidate putative functional relationships between different OCD symptom dimensions and implicit aggressiveness.

A Ketone Monoester with Carbohydrate Improves Cognitive Measures Postexercise, but Not Performance in Trained Females.

The acute ingestion of a ketone monoester with the coingestion of a carbohydrate (KME + CHO) compared with carbohydrate (CHO) was investigated on cycling performance and cognitive performance in trained females. Using a two condition, placebo-controlled, double-blinded and crossover design, 12 trained females (mean ± SD: age, 23 ± 3 yr; height, 1.64 ± 0.08 m; mass, 65.2 ± 12.7 kg) completed a baseline assessment of cognitive performance (psychomotor vigilance testing (PVT), task switching, and incongruent flanker), followed by 6 × 5-min intervals at 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, and 65% of their maximal power output (W max ) and then a 10-km time trial, concluding with the same assessments of cognitive performance. Participants consumed either 375 mg·kg -1 body mass of KME with a 6% CHO solution (1 g·min -1 of exercise) or CHO alone, across three boluses (50:25:25). Blood β-hydroxybutyrate concentrations averaged 1.80 ± 0.07 and 0.13 ± 0.01 mM during exercise in KME + CHO and CHO, respectively. Blood glucose decreased after drink 1 of KME + CHO (~15%; P = 0.01) but not CHO, and lactate concentrations were lower in KME + CHO at 50%, 55%, 60%, and 65% W max (all P < 0.05) compared with CHO. Despite these changes, no differences were found between conditions for time trial finishing times (KME + CHO, 29.7 ± 5.7 min; CHO, 29.6 ± 5.7 min; P = 0.92). However, only KME + CHO resulted in increases in psychomotor vigilance testing speed (~4%; P = 0.01) and faster reaction times (~14%; P < 0.01), speed (~15%; P < 0.01), and correct responses (~13%; P = 0.03) in the incongruent flanker during posttesting compared with CHO. The acute ingestion of a KME + CHO elevated blood β-hydroxybutyrate and lowered glucose and lactate across multiple time points during exercise compared with CHO. Although these changes did not affect physical performance, several markers of cognitive performance were improved by the addition of a KME in trained females.

Relationship between quadriceps muscle computed tomography measurement and motor function, muscle mass, and sarcopenia diagnosis.

The quadriceps muscle is one of the human body's largest and most clinically important muscles and is evaluated using mid-thigh computed tomography (CT); however, its relationship with motor function and sarcopenia remains unclear. Herein, we investigated the relationship between the cross-sectional area (CSA) of the quadriceps muscle, CT attenuation value (CTV), dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry muscle mass measurements, and muscle strength and motor function to evaluate the relationship between muscle mass loss and motor function decline, determine the diagnostic ability for sarcopenia, and confirm the usefulness of quadriceps muscle CT evaluation. A total of 472 middle-aged and older community dwellers (254 men and 218 women) aged ≥40 years (mean age: 62.3 years) were included in this study. The quantity and quality of the quadriceps muscle were assessed using CSA and CTV (CSA×CTV) as a composite index multiplied by quality and quantity. Age-adjusted partial correlations by sex with eight motor functions (knee extension muscle strength, power, normal walking speed, fast walking speed, grip strength, sit-up ability, balance ability, and reaction time) were evaluated, including correction methods for height, weight, and body mass index (BMI). Further, the accuracy of sarcopenia diagnosis was evaluated using appendicular muscle mass with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry measurements, grip strength, and walking speed as the gold standard, and receiver operating characteristic curves were plotted to evaluate diagnostic performance. In men, CSA and CSA×CTV were significantly associated with seven of the eight motor functions (p<0.05), excluding only balance ability. BMI-corrected CSA was significantly correlated with all eight motor functions in men and women (p<0.05). In the diagnosis of sarcopenia based on skeletal muscle index, CSA (area under the curve (AUC) 0.935) and CSA×CTV (AUC 0.936) and their correction by height (CSA/height (AUC 0.917) and CSA×CTV/height (AUC 0.920)) were highly accurate and useful for diagnosis in men but moderately accurate in women (CSA (AUC 0.809), CSA×CTV (AUC 0.824), CSA/height (AUC 0.799), CSA×CTV/height (AUC 0.814)). The present results showed that a single CT image of the quadriceps muscle at the mid-thigh is useful for diagnosing sarcopenic changes, such as loss of muscle mass, muscle weakness, and muscle function.

Losing Awareness of Our Surroundings?

Abstract: Narrative messages have demonstrated consistent effects on attitude change, with transportation as one of the most prominent explanations for their effects. However, the transportation process has yet to be fully understood. The present study investigated how attentional changes during audio narrative exposure, operationalized as secondary task reaction times, related to postexposure self-reports of transportation. Results demonstrated, unexpectedly, that faster reaction times were associated with increased transportation. Additionally, the study investigated multitasking propensity as a moderator, finding that low multitaskers exhibited slower reaction times during narrative compared to nonnarrative exposure whereas high multitaskers showed no differences in reaction time for narratives compared to nonnarratives. There were no differences in self-reported transportation for high and low multitaskers. The findings revealed limitations of the transportation self-report measure to capture attention, while highlighting the nuanced relationship between attention and transportation.

Synchronous wrapping and inward-etching strategy on constructing yolk-shell MIL-88A@NiFe-PB heterostructures for electrochemical non-enzymatic glucose detection

Construction of heterocompositional hybrid metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) by integration of more than two MOFs is a smart strategy for fine-tuning MOF properties. In this work, a novel yolk-shell MIL-88A@NiFe-PB heterostructure, in which MIL stands for Materials from Institute Lavoisier, and PB represents the coordination network of Prussian Blue, was fabricated through a fast wrapping and then inward-etching growth synthetic strategy under mild stirring condition. The thickness of the outmost layer of NiFe-PB and the internal core structure of MIL-88A can be controlled by tuning the concentration of K4[Fe(CN)6]·3H2O in the assembly system. A rational growth mechanism for the yolk-shell MIL-88A@NiFe-PB heterostructure was proposed. The as-prepared yolk-shell MIL-88A@Ni10Fe PB-50 architectures were then explored for non-enzymatic glucose sensing. The results show that the designed glucose sensor exhibits a high sensitivity of 1963.2 μA mM−1 cm−2 over a wide linear range of 0.005–1.0 mM, a low detection limit (0.12 μM), as well as a fast reaction time (<2 s) and long-term stability for non-enzymatic glucose detection. Also, it shows good applicability in real serum samples. This work provides a “wrapping-inward-etching” synthetic strategy for construction of hybrid MOFs with exceptional outstanding non-enzymatic glucose sensing performance, providing a reasonable guide for construction of other MOF on MOF intriguing structures for electrochemical sensing applications.

Fronto-parietal theta high-definition transcranial alternating current stimulation may modulate working memory under postural control conditions in young healthy adults.

This study aimed to investigate the immediate effects of fronto-parietal θ HD-tACS on a dual task of working memory-postural control. In this within-subject cross-over pilot study, we assessed the effects of 20 min of 6 Hz-tACS targeting both the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (lDLPFC) and posterior parietal cortex (PPC) in 20 healthy adults (age: 21.6 ± 1.3 years). During each session, single- and dual-task behavioral tests (working memory single-task, static tandem standing, and a dual-task of working memory-postural control) and closed-eye resting-state EEG were assessed before and immediately after stimulation. Within the tACS group, we found a 5.3% significant decrease in working memory response time under the dual-task following tACS (t = -3.157, p = 0.005, Cohen's d = 0.742); phase synchronization analysis revealed a significant increase in the phase locking value (PLV) of θ band between F3 and P3 after tACS (p = 0.010, Cohen's d = 0.637). Correlation analyses revealed a significant correlation between increased rs-EEG θ power in the F3 and P3 channels and faster reaction time (r = -0.515, p = 0.02; r = -0.483, p = 0.031, respectively) in the dual-task working memory task after tACS. However, no differences were observed on either upright postural control performance or rs-EEG results (p-values <0.05). Fronto-parietal θ HD-tACS has the potential of being a neuromodulatory tool for improving working memory performance in dual-task situations, but its effect on the modulation of concurrently performed postural control tasks requires further investigation.

The relation between visual orienting functions, visual perception, and functional vision in children with (suspected) cerebral visual impairment

BackgroundBrain-based impairments in visual perception (VP), termed cerebral visual impairment (CVI), are heterogeneous. AimsTo investigate relations between functional vision and (1) visual orienting functions (VOF) and (2) VP. Methods and proceduresForty-four children (Males = 20; Mean age = 9y11m) with (suspected) CVI were tested with an adapted virtual toy box (vTB) paradigm (eye tracking visual search task (VST) and a recognition/memory task), VP tests, a preferential looking eye tracking (PL-ET) paradigm, and the Flemish cerebral visual impairment questionnaire. Relations were tested with Spearman correlations. Outcomes and resultsFunctional vision was related to VOF and VP. Children who performed poorly on the VST performed worse on the PL-ET paradigm (r success rate = 0.508–0.654; r reaction time (to fixation) = 0.327–0.633; r fixation duration = 0.532; r gaze fixation area/error = 0.565). Faster VST reaction time was related to higher recognition/memory task accuracy (r = −0.385) and better object/picture recognition (r = −0.371). Higher accuracy in the recognition/memory task was related to better object and face processing (r = −0.539), less visual (dis)interest (r = −0.380), and better clutter and distance viewing (r = −0.353). Conclusions and implicationsIn CVI, VOF, VP, and functional vision are interlinked, and when one is impaired, it negatively affects the others. Hence, quantitatively profiling basic functioning, higher-order and daily life abilities is crucial.

Physical Fitness of Thoroughbred Horse Racing Jockeys

Abstract Purpose Thoroughbred racing jockeys compete at maximum physiological capacity in a sport with a high risk of falls and injury. A greater understanding of the physical capacities determining jockey performance may lead to minimum physical performance parameters and corrective interventions to improve jockey fitness and performance and reduce jockey and horse injury. The aim of this study was to develop appropriate physical testing procedures for jockeys and a physical fitness profile for different licence levels. Methods Fifty-eight jockeys (n = 24 females, n = 34 males), representing all apprentice jockeys licenced in New Zealand in 2021 (100%, n = 8 probationers and n = 39 apprentices) and eleven professional jockeys (14%) were assessed to determine baseline physiological and fitness data. Descriptive statistics and boxplots were used to compare aerobic fitness, abdominal (core), upper and lower body strength, muscular power, reaction time, flexibility and a novel ‘saddle’ test targeting lower body strength, balance, and endurance between licencing levels. Effect Size (ES) was used to determine magnitude of differences between groups. Results More experienced jockeys had greater relative lower body strength (ES = 0.2–0.7) and better balance (ES = 0.5–0.9) compared to the less experienced groups. Jockeys who were in the top 20 of the premiership table (jockey rankings) had faster reaction times (ES = 0.7) and greater core extensor strength (ES = 0.7) than other cohorts. Most tests showed little differentiation between jockey licence levels, however the ‘saddle test’ showed greater variability in the less experienced race riders. This test may be an effective measure of jockey baseline performance. Conclusions These data could be used to inform minimum jockey licencing requirements and future physical fitness training programmes to increase jockey physiological fitness, thereby minimising risk of falls or injury due to physiological deficits and performance.

Feasibility of a novel neurofeedback system: a parallel randomized single-blinded pilot study

Neurocognitive assessment tools have been proposed to optimize, maintain, and improve perceptual-cognitive performance. Here, we investigated the feasibility and efficacy of a novel neurofeedback system, neuroMoon (nM), on cognitive abilities compared with one of the most popular perceptual-cognitive training (PCT) tools both in sports and rehabilitation called NeuroTracker (NT). Thirty-one young athletes performed a comprehensive battery of cognitive tests from the Vienna Test System before and after a 12-session computer-based cognitive training program using nM (n = 11, age 22.6 ± 3.8 years), nM sham (CON, n = 10, age 20.3 ± 1.2 years) or NT (n = 10, age 20.5 ± 1.7 years) device. A series of repeated-measures ANOVA was performed to detect changes in cognitive abilities in response to the training. Participants had faster median reaction time in both the color-naming and word-reading conditions of the Stroop test (all p < 0.005), regardless of group. Regarding the task switching test, statistical analysis indicated faster working time and mean reaction time of the incongruent stimuli, repetition task, and shifting task (all p < 0.005), nevertheless, these changes were also regardless of group. In addition, we found fewer omitted (pre: 17.5 ± 8.3, post: 6.4 ± 1.5, d = 1.311) and more correct (pre: 261.6 ± 36.1, post: 278.6 ± 38.7, d = − 1.020) post-intervention answers in the determination test, regardless of group. Finally, participants in each group performed the digit span backward test with larger post (6.42 ± 1.54) vs. pre (5.55 ± 1.43) scores following the PCT (d = − 0.801). Overall, PCT with nM as compared with NT induced similar results in cognitive abilities suggesting its potential to be used to achieve and maintain better mental performance. However, considering that the sham stimulation also induced similar improvements in cognitive abilities, future studies should clearly determine the cognitive measures that could benefit from NF training.

Application of LiMgPO4 crystal for proton beam quality control in radiotherapy.

The radioluminescence (RL) emitted by LiMgPO4 detector under proton beam irradiation was investigated in real time at the radiotherapy facility in the Institute of Nuclear Physics Polish Academy of Sciences in Krakow. The facility uses protons accelerated by the AIC-144 isochronous cyclotron up to the energy of 60MeV. The measurements of RL were carried out using a remote optical fiber device with a luminophore detector and photomultiplier located at opposite ends of the optical fiber. A thin slice of LiMgPO4 doped with Tm (1.2mol%) crystal was exposed to the proton beam. The tested detector allowed for the measurement of proton beam current, flux fluence and determination of proton beam time structure parameters. The investigation of LiMgPO4 crystal showed its high sensitivity, fast reaction time to irradiation and possibility of application as the detector for control of proton beam parameters.

Age-Related Differences in Mind Wandering: The Role of Emotional Valence.

Older adults consistently report fewer experiences of mind wandering compared to younger adults. Aging is also associated with a shift in the emotional focus of our thoughts, with older adults tending to experience an increase in attention toward positive information, or a "positivity bias," relative to younger adults. Here, we tested if the positivity bias associated with aging can also predict age-related changes in the content of older adults' mind wandering. Older adults and younger adults completed a go/no-go task with periodic thought probes to assess rates of emotionally valenced mind wandering. Older adults reported significantly less negatively and neutrally valenced mind wandering compared to younger adults, but there was no age difference in reports of positively valenced mind wandering. Overall rates of mind wandering predicted poorer task performance for both age groups: Individuals who mind wandered more, performed worse, but this did not differ by the emotional valence. Both older adults and younger adults showed similar in-the-moment performance deficits, with mind wandering reports being associated with worse immediate no-go accuracy and faster reaction times, consistent with mindless responding. Focusing on different dimensions of thought content, such as emotional valence, can provide new insight into age-related differences in mind wandering. Older adults' mind wandering reports were less negative and neutral compared to younger adults' reports suggesting a positivity bias for older adults. However, this positivity bias does not seem to affect task performance. We discuss the implications of the findings for mind wandering theories and the positivity bias.

Modeling of Improved Sine Cosine Algorithm with Optimal Deep Learning-Enabled Security Solution

Artificial intelligence (AI) acts as a vital part of enhancing network security using intrusion detection and anomaly detection. These AI-driven approaches have become essential components of modern cybersecurity strategies. Conventional IDS is based on predefined signatures of known attacks. AI improves signature-based detection by automating the signature generation and reducing false positives through pattern recognition. It can automate threat detection and response, allowing for faster reaction times and reducing the burden on human analysts. With this motivation, this study introduces an Improved Sine Cosine Algorithm with a Deep Learning-Enabled Security Solution (ISCA-DLESS) technique. The presented ISCA-DLESS technique relies on metaheuristic-based feature selection (FS) and a hyperparameter tuning process. In the presented ISCA-DLESS technique, the FS technique using ISCA is applied. For the detection of anomalous activities or intrusions, the multiplicative long short-term memory (MLSTM) approach is used. For improving the anomaly detection rate of the MLSTM approach, the fruitfly optimization (FFO) algorithm can be utilized for the hyperparameter tuning process. The simulation value of the ISCA-DLESS approach was tested on a benchmark NSL-KDD database. The extensive comparative outcomes demonstrate the enhanced solution of the ISCA-DLESS system with other recent systems with a maximum accuracy of 99.69%.

Stimulus-Response Compatibility During Fighting Task Simulation: Influences of the Opponent's Spatial Codes on the Accuracy and Response Time.

Manual Reaction Time measures have been widely used to study interactions between perceptual, cognitive, and motor functions. The Stimulus-Response Compatibility is a phenomenon characterized through faster Manual Reaction Times when stimuli and response locations coincide (correspondent condition) than when they are on different sides (noncorrespondent condition). The present study adapted a protocol to study if the Stimulus-Response Compatibility effect can be detected during a virtual combat simulation. Twenty-seven participants were instructed to defend themselves by clicking a key in order to block the presented punch. Videos of two fighters were used, granting two types of basic strokes: the back fist, a punch performed with the dorsal part of the fighter's hand, starting at the opposite side to which it is directed; and the hook punch, performed with a clenched fist starting and finishing ipsilaterally. The Manual Reaction Times were different between the correspondent and noncorrespondent conditions, F(1, 26) = 9.925; p < .004; η2 = .276, with an Stimulus-Response Compatibility effect of 72ms. Errors were also different, F(1, 26) = 23.199; p < .001; η2 = .472, between the correspondent (13%) and the noncorrespondent conditions (23%). The study concluded that spatial codes presented at the beginning of the punch movement perception substantially influenced the response execution.

Dogs Barking and Babies Crying: The Effect of Environmental Noise on Physiological State and Cognitive Performance.

The exposure to some environmental sounds has detrimental effects on health and might affect the performance in cognitive tasks. In this study, we analyze the effect of the neighborhood noises of a baby crying and dogs barking on the autonomic response and cognitive function. Twenty participants were exposed, in separate sessions, to white noise, a baby crying, a small dog barking, and a large dog barking. During each session, heart rate, skin conductance, reaction times, spatial memory, and mathematical processing measures were taken throughout time. The sounds of a baby crying and dogs barking led to significantly higher heart rates and skin conductance levels as opposed to exposure to white noise. Results were not as consistent with exposure to barking as they were to the baby. Exposure to the baby crying and dogs barking led to faster reaction times, possibly due to a facilitation by the autonomic system activation. No significant effects on spatial memory were found. Conversely, participants performed worse and slower in a mathematical task when exposed to the dog and baby sounds, than when exposed to control noise. Exposure to the sound of crying babies and dogs barking leads to increased sympathetic response and decreased cognitive ability, as compared to exposure to control sounds. Special attention should be paid to the mitigation of exposure to these types of noises.

Regioselective Fluoroalkylarylation of Enamides Enabled by an Iron-Catalyzed Multicomponent Radical Cross-Coupling Strategy.

Fluoroalkylated compounds are important entities in agrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, and materials. The catalytic dicarbofunctionalization of alkenes represents a powerful strategy for the rapid construction and diversification of compounds. In this vein, multicomponent cross-coupling reactions (MC-CCR) can provide an efficient synthetic route to build molecular complexity. In this work, we report the first iron-catalyzed three-component fluoroalkylarylation of enamides via selective formation and trapping of α-amide radicals under mild conditions and fast reaction times. The reaction tolerates a variety of commercially available aryl Grignard reagents and fluoroalkyl halides. Finally, the use of a removable phthalimido group provides an efficient strategy to prepare highly valuable γ-difluoroalkylated amines.

Performing well but not appreciating it - A trait feature of anorexia nervosa.

Despite advances in the etiology of anorexia nervosa (AN), a large subgroup of individuals does not profit optimally from treatment. Perfectionism has been found to be a risk factor predicting the onset, severity, and duration of AN episodes. To date, perfectionism has been studied predominantly by the use of self-report questionnaires, a useful approach that may, however, be impacted by demand characteristics, or other distortions of introspective or metacognitive access. Here we circumvent these problems via a behavioral paradigm in which participants perform a modified Go/NoGo task, whilst self-evaluating their performance. We compared a group of 33 adolescent females during their first episode of AN (age=16.0) with 29 female controls (age=16.2), and 23 adolescent girls recovered from AN (age=18.3) with 23 female controls (age=18.5). The controls were closely matched by intelligence quotient and age to the two clinical groups. First-episode AN and control participants performed equally well on the task (reaction time and errors of commission), whereas the recovered group displayed significantly faster reaction times but incurred the same error rate. Despite performing at least as good as and predominantly better than control groups, both clinical groups evaluated their performances more negatively than controls. We offer a novel behavioral method for measuring perfectionism independent of self-report, and we provide tentative evidence that this behavioral manifestation of perfectionism is evident during first-episode AN and persists even after recovery.

Are Warnings Suitable for Presentation in Head-Up Display? A Meta-Analysis for the Effect of Head-Up Display Warning on Driving Performance

Head-up display (HUD) warnings are gaining increasing attention with the growing importance of advanced warning systems in vehicles for improving driving safety. However, the effectiveness of HUD warnings is still controversial considering the various driving performance indexes, warning modalities, and driving scenarios used in previous studies. This study conducts meta-analyses of the relevant literature to examine whether HUD warnings (both unimodal HUD warnings and multimodal warnings with HUD) have advantages compared with other warnings (head-down display warnings, auditory warnings, tactile warnings, and multimodal warnings without HUD) for driver reaction times and driving quality. Overall, 33 articles were included in four meta-analyses. Additionally, the effects of the related moderator variables of scenario, mapping of warnings, and non-driving-related tasks (NDRTs) on the relationship between using HUD warnings and using non-HUD warnings was analyzed. The results show that using unimodal HUD warnings leads to faster reaction times compared with head-down display warnings but has no significant advantage on driving performance over auditory warnings in general and results in slower reaction times than using tactile warnings. However, results of the moderating effects suggest that using HUD warnings in non-critical scenarios and using high mapping HUD icons (i.e., HUD warnings with specific hazard information) are conducive to improving driving performance in comparison with other warning types. These results highlight the potential advantages of HUD in transmitting warning information. The future application and design of HUD warnings may need to focus on specific situations considering iconic mapping to an event.

Subliminal perception of others’ physical pain induces personal distress rather than empathic concern

BackgroundWhat is our immediate reaction when we witness someone experiencing pain? The empathy-altruism hypothesis predicts that observers would display empathy and a tendency to approach the person in pain. Alternatively, the threat value of pain hypothesis (TVPH) argues that others' pain serves as a signal of threat and should induce observers’ avoidance response.MethodsTo examine these two hypotheses, three experiments were conducted. The experiments aimed to investigate the impact of subliminal exposure to others' physical pain on participants' emotional and behavioural responses.ResultsThe results revealed that subliminal pain priming resulted in faster response and attentional bias to fearful faces compared to sad faces (Experiment 1), faster reaction times in recognizing fear-related words compared to anger-related words during a lexical decision task (Experiment 2), and faster avoidance responses towards anger-related words, as opposed to approaching responses towards positive words (Experiment 3).ConclusionsThe consistent findings across all experiments revealed that subliminal perception of pain scenes elicited fear emotion and immediate avoidance responses. Therefore, the outcomes of our study provide supportive evidence for the TVPH.

Electrophysiological correlates of semantic pain processing in the affective priming.

Pain plays a fundamental role in the well-being of the individual, and its semantic content may have specific properties compared to other negative domains (i.e., fear and anger) which allows the cognitive system to detect it with priority. Considering the influence of the affective context in which stimuli (targets) are evaluated, it is possible that their valence could be differentially processed if preceded by negative stimuli (primes) associated with pain than negative stimuli not associated with pain. Thus, the present study aims to investigate the electrophysiological correlates of the implicit processing of words with pain content by using an affective priming paradigm. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded while participants were presented with positive and negative word targets (not associated with pain) that were preceded by positive, negative (not associated with pain), and pain word primes. Participants were asked to judge the valence of the target word. Results showed faster reaction times (RTs) in congruent conditions, especially when the negative target was preceded by a pain prime rather than a positive one. ERPs analyses showed no effect of pain at an early-stage processing (N400), but a larger waveform when the pain prime preceded the positive prime on the LPP. These results reaffirm the importance that valence has in establishing the priority with which stimuli are encoded in the environment and highlight the role that pain has in the processing of stimuli, supporting the hypothesis according to which the valence and the semantics of a stimulus interact with each other generating a specific response for each type of emotion.