Electric Vehicle Applications Research Articles

Unconventional Thick Cobalt Telluride Electrodes Enable Homogeneous Ion Flow for High Capacity, Fast and Safe Potassium Storage

The demand for high-energy density, fast-charging, and safe potassium-ion batteries (PIBs) is crucial for large-scale applications in electric vehicles and grid systems. Despite the potential of thick electrode designs by a conventional technique (CTEs) to boost energy density, they often encounter challenges such as reduced capacity, limited cycling lifespan, and localized short circuits. Here, we present a novel cobalt telluride composite anode by a simple tellurization and subsequent heat reduction, featuring Co1.67Te2 nanoparticles uniformly embedded within an N-doped carbon layer on a trace amount of reduced graphene oxide (CT@NC/rGO). By constructing low tortuosity electrodes (LTEs), a homogeneous distribution of potassium ions and current density is achieved, resulting in enhanced potassium storage performance. The CT@NC/rGO LTEs demonstrate excellent discharge capacities: 311.7, 276.5, and 243.7mAh g-1 after 500 cycles at 0.25Ag-1 for mass loadings of 1.4, 1.9, and 2.8mgcm-2, respectively. At a higher current density of 0.5Ag-1, discharge capacities after 650 cycles are 245.3, 175.6, and 159.2mAh g-1 for mass loadings at 1.6, 2.4, and 3.0mgcm-2, respectively. These improvements are attributed to enhanced pseudocapacitive behavior, reduced charge resistance, and accelerated ion diffusion kinetics, as evidenced by experimental and simulation studies. The proposed strategy for synthesizing high-density electrodes holds promise for developing high-performance metallic compound electrodes for PIBs and potentially extending to other types of energy storage systems.

Bi-directional DC-AC using BLDC motor for electric and hybrid electric vehicles applications with reduced number of switches

Electric scooters often have a single design and are difficult to produce at a greater level than other forms of transportation. A possible cut electric scooter is built with the optimization design of the vehicle combustible wealth and the pollution characteristics in order to arrange to a correct solution by resolving each and every challenge. The engines' electrical systems are comprised of lead acid batteries. For the sake of a straightforward simulation procedure, the engine operates in two states ON and OFF while the vehicle's speed is regulated in three ranges roughly corresponding to high, medium, and low. The planetary speed ratio and the final drive speed ratio are gathered in the computation method's general outline. Utilizing simulation MATLAB, the findings of optimization strategies are resolved. This technique improves the fuel plenty and discharge quality of the possibility cut electric automobiles.

Strategic electromagnetic interferences suppression in boost converters: zero-switch techniques

This article delves into the growing demand for efficient power conversion technologies accompanying the rise in electric vehicle (EV) adoption. Boost converters, essential for increasing the battery pack voltage to propel EV motors, pose a challenge due to the electromagnetic interference (EMI) generated by the high switching frequency of power devices. To address this issue, practitioners employ zero-voltage switching (ZVS) and zero-current switching (ZCS) techniques. In this comparative study, we systematically evaluate the effectiveness of these soft switching techniques in reducing conducted EMI in boost converters designed for EV applications. The results illuminate the potential of both ZVS and ZCS in significantly mitigating EMI emissions when compared to conventional hard-switching methods. Notably, ZVS soft switching emerges as more efficient and effective, particularly under higher loads, while ZCS soft switching excels in reducing EMI at lighter loads. In conclusion, the study asserts that ZVS soft switching presents a more promising solution for curtailing conducted EMI in boost converters for EV applications, particularly in high-load scenarios. However, it underscores the importance of considering specific operational conditions when deciding between the two techniques.

Review—Challenges and Opportunities in Lithium Metal Battery Technology

Abstract Lithium metal battery (LMB) technology is very attractive as it has the potential to offer energy densities greater than 1000 Wh/L. A thorough investigation of cell performance against various vehicle operational requirements is required for the successful deployment of this technology in practical electric vehicle applications. For instance, there have been several reports on the high reactivity of Li metal with electrolyte leading to continuous electrolyte consumption in LMB. Due to these parasitic reactions, electrolyte dries out and Li metal morphological changes occur leading to reduced cycle life of lithium metal batteries. In contrast, there are also claims of stable and long cycle life of LMB in several publications, although most of the results were obtained in coin cells. In this report we will take a closer look at the LMB cell to understand its performance and manufacturability. Our goal is to investigate and provide a thorough report on advances and challenges starting from the cell level down to component design of LMB.

Overview of Isolated Bidirectional DC–DC Converter Topology and Switching Strategies for Electric Vehicle Applications

Isolated bidirectional DC–DC converters are becoming increasingly important in various applications, particularly in the electric vehicle sector, due to their ability to achieve bidirectional power flow and their safety features. This paper aims to review the switch strategies and topologies of isolated bidirectional DC–DC converters, with a specific focus on their applications in the field of electric vehicles. From the perspective of topology, PWM-type isolated bidirectional DC–DC converters, dual active bridge converters, and resonant-type isolated bidirectional DC–DC converters constitute the three main categories of these converters. The paper further examines the traditional switch strategies of these converters and discusses how specific switch technologies, such as single-phase shift, expanding-phase shift, double-phase shift, and triple-phase shift, can enhance the overall performance of isolated bidirectional DC–DC converters. The paper meticulously examines the characteristics of each topology and control scheme, as well as their typical use cases in practical applications. Particularly, the paper delves into the applications of isolated bidirectional DC–DC converters in the electric vehicle sector and draws conclusions regarding their potential and trends in future electric vehicle technology.

High‐Safety Anode Materials for Advanced Lithium‐Ion Batteries

Lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) play a pivotal role in today's society, with widespread applications in portable electronics, electric vehicles, and smart grids. Commercial LIBs predominantly utilize graphite anodes due to their high energy density and cost‐effectiveness. Graphite anodes face challenges, however, in extreme safety‐demanding situations, such as airplanes and passenger ships. The lithiation of graphite can potentially form lithium dendrites at low temperatures, causing short circuits. Additionally, the dissolution of the solid‐electrolyte‐interphase on graphite surfaces at high temperatures can lead to intense reactions with the electrolyte, initiating thermal runaway. This review introduces two promising high‐safety anode materials, Li4Ti5O12 and TiNb2O7. Both materials exhibit low tendencies towards lithium dendrite formation and have high onset temperatures for reactions with the electrolyte, resulting in reduced heat generation and significantly lower probabilities of thermal runaway. Li4Ti5O12 and TiNb2O7 offer enhanced safety characteristics compared to graphite, making them suitable for applications with stringent safety requirements. This review provides a comprehensive overview of Li4Ti5O12 and TiNb2O7, focusing on their material properties and practical applicability. It aims to contribute to the understanding and development of high‐safety anode materials for advanced LIBs, addressing the challenges and opportunities associated with their implementation in real‐world applications.

Four-leg floating interleaved converters for electric vehicle applications with rule-based energy management algorithm

This work contributes to the optimization of hybrid system coupling a fuel cell (FC) to a supercapacitor (SC) for electric vehicles. The complementarity between these two energy sources allows the improvement of the global performances of the system. Our study focuses on the implementation of control and energy management techniques. Our objective is to have a better use of the storage system. In this context, our approach is to regulate the bus current and voltage and then to develop two real-time energy management strategies, one without considering and the other with considering the state of charge of the storage system. A comparison between these two strategies allowed us to understand the importance of the state of charge in the hybrid system. MATLAB/Simulink helped us in showing the performance obtained on a given mission profile of the vehicle dynamics.

Remaining useful life prediction and state of health diagnosis of lithium-ion batteries with multiscale health features based on optimized CatBoost algorithm

Due to the large-scale application of electric vehicles, the remaining service life prediction and health status diagnosis of lithium-ion batteries as their power core is particularly important, and the essence of RUL prediction and SOH diagnosis is the prediction of remaining capacity. Through the aging experiment of cycle charging and discharging of lithium-ion batteries, the health features of experimental data are extracted for the prediction of remaining capacity. In this paper, a deep feature extraction method based on Bilinear CNN combined with CatBoost algorithm based on fractional order method optimization particle swarm optimization, and ant colony optimization algorithm is proposed for battery remaining capacity prediction. Seven groups of health features extracted from ten groups of battery data were used to input them into the optimized CatBoost algorithm for regression prediction. The results show that the proposed model achieves accurate SOH and RUL prediction, the three evaluation indicators MAE, RMSE, and MAPE of SOH are all within 1.7 % and the error rate of RUL is not higher than 1.5 %, and the test of multiple batteries also proves its strong robustness.

Synergizing Battery-Powered Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor Control with Integrated Modular Multilevel Converter Systems

This proposed work presents a comprehensive examination of a modular multilevel converter (MMC) combined with a permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) for battery energy management in applications. In order to provide effective energy transfer and dynamic control, the Modular Multilevel Converter serves as a bridge between the battery system and the Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor drive. By cleverly controlling energy flow and minimizing losses during charging and discharging cycles, the combination of MMC with PMSM seeks to increase energy efficiency and prolong battery life. Since the energy source provides all of the power for the motor, it runs at a constant pace. When the accelerating mode finishes, the energy storage receives just enough power to maintain a steady voltage. The energy storage system utilizes the majority of the renewable power generated by the electric motor when it is in deceleration mode to raise the voltage in the system. During the subsequent acceleration mode, the stored energy might be released the MMC-BESS, which combines a modular multilevel converter with a battery energy storage system, is gaining popularity due to its high adaptability and dependability. This system integrates batteries into a sub module. Sub-modular capacitor voltage fluctuations are caused by the significant reactive power that is generated through the workings of modular multilevel converters. To reduce the fluctuation, large capacitance capacitors is required, which would significantly increase the system's capacity. The proposed approach means to upgrade energy proficiency and execution in electric vehicle applications. By joining the benefits of battery power with the flexibility of MMC frameworks, the arrangement offers upgraded control accuracy, decreased misfortunes, and further developed adaptation to non-critical failure. This combination works with consistent power the executives, guaranteeing ideal use of assets while meeting severe execution prerequisites. Through exhaustive examination and recreation, the adequacy of this incorporated framework is illustrated, displaying propelling the field of electric vehicle impetus and power conversion potential.

A review on recent progress in battery thermal management system in electric vehicle application

Global challenges of energy crisis and air pollution have presented a tremendous opportunity for the development of electric cars. Li-ion batteries are crucial for electric cars (EVs). Nevertheless, Li-ion batteries are sensitive to the operating temperature and only function optimally within a certain temperature range. Hence, EVs require a battery thermal management system (BTMS). A cooling system's advantage is that it prevents the premature deterioration of battery life. This article examines several battery temperature management techniques and classifies them as either active or passive. In addition, the hybrid BTMS with an active/passive combination is described. This article gives an overview of current advancements in the direction of BTMS with direct and indirect cooling technologies, as well as key insights into hybrid BTMS.

Hydrogen-bonded organic framework modified separator for simultaneously enhancing the safety and electrochemical performance of Ni-rich lithium-ion battery

Nickel-rich layered oxide cathode (LiNixCoyMn1−x−yO2, x > 0.5, NCM) shows substantial potential for applications in longer-range electrical vehicles. However, the rapid capacity decay and serious safety concerns impede its practical viability. This work provides a hydrogen-bonded organic framework (HOF) modification strategy to simultaneously improve the electrochemical performance, thermal stability and incombustibility of separator. Melamine cyanurate (MCA), as a low-cost and reliable flame-retardant HOF, was implemented in the separator modification layer, which can prevent the battery short circuit even at a high temperature. In addition, the supermolecule properties of MCA provide unique physical and chemical microenvironment for regulating ion-transport behavior in electrolyte. The MCA coating layer enabled the nickel-rich layered oxide cathode with a high-capacity retention of 90.3% after 300 cycles at 1.0 C. Collectively, the usage of MCA in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) affords a simple, low-cost and efficient strategy to improve the security and service life of nickel-rich layered cathodes.

Numerical study on thermal runaway in a cell and battery pack at critical heating conditions with variation in heating powers

The thermal stability of lithium-ion cell is still a major concern in electric vehicle and energy storage applications affecting the cell to its chemistry level. The thermal abuse is the most common type of thermal runaway which is triggered either by excess heat accumulation or localized heating in the battery pack. Analysis of thermal runaway in the perspective of various critical heating positions with temperature distribution, heat generation still lacks. Thus, the present work is focused on this issue. A three-dimensional homogeneous Multi-Scale, Multi-Dimensional model with a finite volume method solver ANSYS FLUENT has been utilised to assess the effect of heating positions, and variation in spacings on thermal runaway for a 18650 cell and battery pack in a detailed way. It is observed that the direction of flow is the typical deciding factor of the thermal runaway spreading pattern in the cell. The negative solvent is responsible for the generation of maximum heat in the thermal runaway of a 18650 cell. The results show that cell heated at the bottom end (10 mm width) is fast prone to thermal runaway, vertical (5 mm width) being slower in disturbing the separator stability. The NCA cathode material has a safety hierarchy that goes as follows with regard to positions: vertical 10 mm > bottom end > bottom 5 mm > centre 10 mm > bottom 10 mm. The effect of spacing on thermal runaway is varying non-uniformly with the location of the heating position in the 3 × 3 battery pack. The highest temperature attained by the 7000 W/m2 heating power battery pack is discovered to be greater than the 10,000 W/m2 by 10 K. With a power increase from 7000 W/m2 to 10,000 W/m2, there is a reduction in time delay of 17 %.

Numerical and experimental analysis of battery thermal management of 21700 Nickel Manganese Cobalt lithium-ion battery

High discharge rates in 21700 NMC Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) leads to elevated temperatures, negatively impacting battery performance and longevity. This study examines the integration of phase change materials to address this issue. Phase change materials absorb heat through sensible and latent heat mechanisms, effectively reducing battery temperature. At discharge rates of 0.5 C, 1 C, and 1.5 C, phase change materials decreased battery temperature by 4.12 %, 7.32 %, and 8.16 %, respectively, ensuring optimal operating conditions. Incorporating phase change materials within battery modules minimizes cell spacing, leading to a smaller battery pack size and reduced costs. This compact design is achieved by exploiting phase change materials ability to store and release large amounts of heat while maintaining a nearly constant temperature. Furthermore, analyzing temperature variations across diverse surfaces within battery modules provides valuable insights for cooling technology development. The integration of Phase Change Materials effectively regulates temperatures, particularly under high discharge rates, offering significant implications for battery performance and longevity. This study highlights the potential of phase change materials in improving LIBs thermal management, which is crucial for electric vehicle applications and other high-power-demand scenarios. By addressing temperature-related challenges, phase change materials integration contribute to the advancement of more efficient, reliable, and safer LIBs.

Wireless Power Transfer System in Electric Vehicle Application

Abstract: As an alternate form in the road transportation system, electric vehicle (EV) can help reduce the fossil-fuel consumption. However, the usage of EVs is constrained by the limited capacity of battery. Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) can increase the driving range of EVs by charging EVs in motion when they drive through a wireless charging lane embedded in a road. The amount of power that can be supplied by a charging lane at a time is limited. A problem here is when a large number of EVs pass a charging lane, how to efficiently distribute the power among different penetrations levels of EVs? However, there has been no previous research devoted to tackling this challenge. To handle this challenge, we propose a system to balance the State of Charge (called BSoC) among the EVs. It consists of three components: i) fog-based power distribution architecture, ii) power scheduling model, and iii) efficient vehicle-to-fog communication protocol. The fog computing center collects information from EVs and schedules the power distribution. We use fog closer to vehicles rather than cloud in order to reduce the communication latency. The power scheduling model schedules the power allocated to each EV. In order to avoid network congestion between EVs and the fog, we let vehicles choose their own communication channel to communicate with local controllers.

Single-Phase Robust Charger with High Power Quality for Electric Vehicle Application

The widespread use of electric vehicles (EVs) necessitates the development of a robust charging infrastructure. The goal of this research paper is to create a high-quality, single-phase charger for electric cars. The purpose of this design is to provide a charger that is both fast and efficient but also protects against power quality problems including harmonics, power factor correction, and voltage variations. A single-phase–single-stage improved power quality EV charger for small and medium power applications has been designed and simulated. A single DC-DC converter is utilized for constant charging and improved power quality operation. The charger presented exhibits improved power quality as sinusoidal current is drawn from the utility grid supply with the total harmonic distortion (THD) in compliance with the IEEE 519 and IEC 61000-3-2 standards. In order to charge the battery of an electric vehicle, most two-stage converters first use a boost converter for power factor correction (PFC), and then they use a DC-DC converter that can accept any input voltage. These two-stage conversions are inefficient and use more parts than necessary. This work proposes a PFC converter based on a single-stage switching inductor Cuk converter, which has the advantages of high step-down gain, low current stress, high efficiency, and a small number of components. The suggested converter’s operational analysis and design equations are performed in continuous current mode. The proposed converter is the subject of extensive mathematical modelling, analysis, simulation, and experimentation presented in this study. With both constant voltage (CV) and constant current (CC) loads, the proposed converter’s performance is analysed with regard to power quality indices like voltage total harmonic distortion (THD), current THD, and total power factor. Additionally, in CV mode and CC mode, the suggested converter’s dynamic performance with battery charging is evaluated in relation to the extensive supply changes. The developed charger presents a reliable and efficient solution for EV charging, fostering the transition to a cleaner and more sustainable transportation system.

Enhancing Electric Vehicle Performance with a Hybrid PI-Sliding Mode Controller for Battery Supercapacitor Integration

Nowadays, most of the works are based on electric vehicle usage for sustainable transportation using traditional energy storage device, such as battery. Usage of batteries in electric vehicles is having several disadvantages, for example, life span, temperature, and charge estimation. In this paper, a novel control scheme for battery and supercapacitor- (SC-) based hybrid energy storage system (HESS) using hybrid proportional and integral- (PI-) sliding mode control (SMC) for electric vehicle (EV) applications is introduced and implemented. This HESS with hybrid controller proves the usage of batteries in EVs to its fullest potential. The conventional control strategy for HESS follows two-loop voltage and current PI controllers with low-pass filter (LPF) and involves tuning of multiple control parameters with variations of source and load disturbances. Performance of the system is affected by tuning PI controller constants. A slow response time with linear PI controllers is long which is not advisable for starting and sudden jerk conditions of EVs. Moreover, the PI controller performance is affected by the system parameter variations during load changes. And these parameters are dynamic in nature due to nonideal conditions. In this paper, a hybrid PI-sliding mode controller (SMC) scheme is designed to control the bidirectional DC-DC converters to overcome the drawbacks of aforementioned issues. The combined PI-SMC controller reduces the tuning effort and reduces the effect of shift in operating point in controller performance. Linear modeling is done using small signal analysis for each subsystems. Permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM) is used as electric vehicle. The entire system and its controllers are simulated using MATLAB-Simulink, and detailed comparison is carried between conventional PI and proposed hybrid PI-SMC scheme to regulate the DC link voltage. The results are tabulated and show that the hybrid PI-SMC scheme outperforms in transient and steady-state conditions than the traditional PI controller. A scaled hardware prototype of 48 W set-up is developed using dSPACE-1104, and the experimental results have been carried out to verify the proposed system’s feasibility.

Variable horizon multivariate driving pattern recognition framework based on vehicle-road two-dimensional information for electric vehicle

Driving condition is the core factor influencing vehicle energy management and power output strategies, hence realistic and accurate driving pattern recognition is crucial for realizing intelligent control of Electric Vehicles in complex scenarios. However, driving patterns mismatch with real scenarios caused by lack of road environment information and the reduced global recognition accuracy triggered by the fixed recognition horizon together constrain the development of intelligent control strategies. In this study, a framework for variable horizon multivariate driving pattern recognition strategy based on vehicle-road two-dimensional (2D) information is proposed. Specifically, multivariate driving pattern extraction is carried out based on real vehicle-road 2D data, and the extraction data serves as input for training offline driving pattern recognizer. To meet the challenge of large differences and frequent changes in driving conditions during the online application, a variable horizon recognition strategy is proposed based on the optimal horizon matching regularity. Finally, test results show that the proposed approach achieves an average recognition accuracy of 88.42% under different cycles, including 88.39% for complex driving cycles. Furthermore, the recognition accuracy is improved by 63.14% and 47.51% compared with the fixed long/short horizon. The framework can provide a basis for intelligent control strategies, thus broadening the Electric Vehicle application scenarios.

Toward better blockchain-enabled energy trading between electric vehicles and smart grids in Internet of Things environments: a survey

With the rise of the 3Ds—decarbonization, decentralization, and digitalization—the number of electric vehicles is projected to increase, necessitating the implementation of modern technologies to avoid unnecessary energy wastage. Numerous studies have been developed proposing electric vehicle (EV) charging frameworks in networks empowered by renewable energy resources. In addition, more focus has recently been directed on incorporating blockchain technology to assure security and transparency in trading systems. However, fewer studies have delved into developing a practical implementation of their solution due to the complexity of the topic. Therefore, this paper thoroughly investigates integrating blockchain technology in electric vehicle charging systems, analyzing the existing practical implementation and their characteristics. It comprises 48 relevant studies between 2017 and 2023, covering the following main research areas: (i) renewable energy-based electric charging systems, (ii) blockchain frameworks used in energy trading, and (iii) performance metrics of simulated and implemented solutions. Results show that blockchain applications in EVs and energy trading systems are highly current, and researchers are actively exploring ways to improve their efficiency and effectiveness.

A Novel KSK Converter with Machine Learning MPPT for PV Applications

Power electronic converters are regarded as indispensable aspects of modern electric power systems, owing their eminence as optimal power interface and power flow regulators. Hence, the design of an efficient converter is vital to support wide-scale expansion in the application of both Renewable Energy Sources and Electric Vehicles. Thereby, a novel high gain K. S. Kavin (KSK) converter based on interleaved architecture, exhibiting lower voltage stress across switches is proposed in this research work. The suggested converter design is well suited for Photovoltaics (PV) power generation, as it offers higher step-up gain with lower input current ripples. Moreover, mathematical analysis and modeling of suggested KSK converter with different operational modes are also covered in this article. Additionally, the Radial Basis Function Neural Network based on Machine Learning is employed as a Maximum Power Point Tracking technique to optimize power generated by the PV system. Additionally, Internet of Things (IoT) is used for real-time monitoring of PV parameters. The viability of the suggested KSK converter is demonstrated through MATLAB simulation and laboratory prototype implementation, while the control of the developed 1000 W prototype is entrusted up on the FPGA Spartan 6E controller. Consequently, achieved exceptional 98.6% efficiency of the proposed KSK converter lends credence to its excellence over other published converter topologies.

Tailoring the Properties of Gel Polymer Electrolytes for Sodium-Ion Batteries Using Ionic Liquids: A Review.

Ionic liquids are an extraordinary group of compounds, fully ionic in structure like inorganic salts but with low melting points, that resemble organic molecular solvents. Their chemical, electrochemical, and thermal stability is what draws the attention and enables their use in many applications, including electrochemical power sources. Even though they are no longer considered eco-friendly because of nonnegligible toxicity and long bioaccumulation, they can still be efficiently recovered, purified, and reused. These attributes can be harvested to enhance the properties of gel polymer electrolytes for the emerging sodium-ion batteries. The variety of anions and cations for ILs and their influence on the final properties of the compound opens the road to tuning the properties of gel polymer electrolytes. Ionic liquids as plasticizers constitute a major part of gel polymer electrolytes (average of 70 wt%) and hence, they affect the fundamental properties of gel electrolytes like ionic conductivity and electrochemical window. They also improve the safety features of sodium-ion batteries, which is relevant for their anticipated applications in stationary energy storage and electric vehicles. The presented review paper aims to explain the relationship between the cation and anion in ionic liquid and the properties of gel electrolytes for sodium-ion batteries.