Coolant Inlet Research Articles

Machine learning assisted multi-objective design optimization for battery thermal management system

The rapid expansion of the electric vehicle (EV) industry necessitates the development of advanced battery thermal management systems (BTMSs) to safeguard the cyclic properties and security of lithium-ion batteries. However, the assessment of the performance of BTMS often overlooks the importance of considering not only the thermal regulation effectiveness on batteries but also its own energy efficiency. This study investigated the synergistic effects of BTMS design and control strategies on both thermal performance and energy utilization of its own. A multiphysics-based model was developed, featuring an 18,650 Lithium-ion battery module with curved cooling channels, to systematically evaluate the impact of cooling channel width and warping angle, inlet coolant temperature and velocity, and charging rate on system performance and efficiency. To further expedite the design optimization process, a Gaussian process (GP)-based surrogate model was implemented. An uncertainty quantification analysis was subsequently performed to validate the robustness of the optimized designs against stochastic variations. The findings indicate that the channel width and coolant velocity play a pivotal role in enhancing BTMS efficiency. Through a rigorous multi-objective optimization process, the energy efficiency was improved by 126 %, while maintaining battery temperatures below 28.4 °C and coolant pressure drops under 3.6 kPa. The integration of multiphysics simulation and machine learning assisted optimization technique represents a pioneering step forward in the development of sophisticated and efficient BTMS solutions for future electric vehicles.

Numerical Study of Coolant Flow Phenomena and Heat Transfer at the Cutting-Edge of Twist Drill

Cutting tool coolant channels play a pivotal role in machining processes, facilitating the efficient supply of cooling agents to high-stress areas and effective heat dissipation. Achieving optimal cooling at the tool’s cutting-edge is essential for enhancing production processes. Experimental investigations into tribological stress analysis can be limited in accessing complex tool–workpiece contact zones, prompting the use of numerical modelling to explore fluid dynamics and tribology. In this study, the coolant flow dynamics and heat dissipation in drilling operations were comprehensively investigated through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling. Four twist drill models with varying coolant channel arrangements were studied: standard model drill, standard model drill with notch, profile model drill, and profile model drill with notch. Two distinct approaches are applied to the coolant inlet to assess the impact of operating conditions on fluid flow and heat dissipation at the cutting-edge. The findings emphasize that cutting-edge zones have insufficient coolant supply, particularly in modified drill models such as the standard model drill with notch and profile model drills with and without notch. Moreover, enhanced coolant supply at the cutting-edge is achieved under high-pressure inlet conditions. The standard model drill with a notch exhibited exceptional performance in reducing thermal load, facilitating efficient coolant escape to the flute for improved heat dissipation at the cutting-edge. Despite challenges like dead zones in profile models, the standard-with-notch model yielded the most promising results. Further analyses under constant pressure conditions at 40 and 60 bar exhibited enhanced fluid flow rates, particularly at the cutting-edge, leading to improved heat dissipation. The temperature distribution along the cutting-edge and outer corner demonstrated a decrease as the pressure increased. This study underscores the critical role of both coolant channel design and inlet pressure in optimizing coolant flow dynamics and heat transfer during drilling operations. The findings provide valuable insights for designing and enhancing coolant systems in machining processes, emphasizing the significance of not only coolant channel geometry but also inlet pressure for effective heat dissipation and enhanced tool performance.

Numerical Study on the Cooling Method of Phase Change Heat Exchange Unit with Layered Porous Media

The implementation of heat sinks in high-power pulse electronic devices within hypersonic aircraft cabins has been facilitated by the emergence of innovative phase change materials (PCMs) characterized by excellent thermal conductivity and high latent heat. In this study, a representative material, layered porous media filled with paraffin wax, was utilized, and a three-dimensional numerical model based on the enthalpy-porosity approach was employed. A thermal response research was conducted on the Phase Change Heat Exchange Unit with Layered Porous Media (PCHEU-LPM) with different cooling methods. The results indicate that water cooling proved to be suitable for the PCHEU-LPM with a heat flux of 50,000 W/m2. Additionally, parametric studies were performed to determine the optimal cooling conditions, considering the inlet temperature and velocity of the cooling flow. The results revealed that the most suitable conditions were strongly influenced by the coolant inlet parameters, along with the position of the PCM interface. Finally, the identification of the parameter combination that minimizes temperature fluctuations was achieved through the Response Surface Analysis method (RSA). Subsequent verification through simulation further reinforced the reliability of the proposed optimal parameters.

Fuel cell temperature control based on nonlinear transformation mitigating system nonlinearity

The operational temperature significantly impacts the efficiency and lifespan of fuel cells. However, precise fuel cell temperature control poses a challenge due to the inherent nonlinear characteristics within the thermal management system. In this study, an in-depth quantitative analysis is undertaken to dissect the intricacies of nonlinearity embedded in temperature control. The results show that the nonlinearity arises from the nonlinear mapping between the thermostat opening and the distribution of coolant flow between the inner and outer loops. To address this nonlinearity, a pre-experiment is implemented to determine the flow ratio of the outer loop coolant flow rate concerning the total stack coolant flow rate under different thermostat openings. Furthermore, a robust temperature control method based on nonlinear transformation is designed, ensuring that stack coolant inlet temperature quickly tracks the target value when load currents change. The proposed control method is verified on a 5 kW fuel cell test bench, and the results demonstrate improvement in dynamic characteristics and enhanced system's robustness. Small-step tests indicate stable tracking of the stack coolant inlet temperature, with a steady-state error of less than 0.2 °C. Besides, under a large-load step response test, the thermostat exhibits a rapid response with merely a 0.6 °C temperature overshoot.

A PWR core power control using optimized PID controller with SQP based on control rod positioning and variable coolant flow rate

To ensure safety and stability, it is optimal for nuclear power plants to operate at their nominal power level. However, to meet the needs of power systems, NPPs must also be able to adjust their output for load-following purposes. This necessitates finding an effective control algorithmto maintain stable/safe operating conditions. The current study investigates the performance of PID controllersoptimized using Sequential Quadratic Programming algorithm and applied using two control techniques: control rod positioning and variable coolant flow rate. Simulation is done using model of four-loop Westinghouse PWR-1200 MW nuclear reactor. The proposed controller’s performance is evaluated in three scenarios:sudden control rod withdrawal, sudden change in coolant inlet temperature, and linear load tracking. The influences of model parametric uncertainty are also investigated. Simulation results revealed that the performance of the control algorithm applied using variable coolant flow rate was superior to the one usingcontrol rod positioning.

Analysis and design of module-level liquid cooling system for rectangular Li-ion batteries

To promote energy conservation and emission reduction, the electric vehicles (EVs) are developing rapidly. An effective battery thermal management system (BTMS) can extend the service life of batteries and avoid thermal runaway. In this study, a liquid-cooling management system of a Li-ion battery (LIB) pack (Ni-Co-Mn, NCM) is established by CFD simulation. The effects of liquid-cooling plate connections, coolant inlet temperature, and ambient temperature on thermal performance of battery pack are studied under different layouts of the liquid-cooling plate. Then, A new heat dissipation scheme, variable temperature cooling of the inlet coolant, is proposed. Results indicate that connecting two sets of liquid coolant plates in a 3-series, 1-parallel configuration can effectively reduce the maximum temperature of the battery pack from 48.73 ℃ to 30.75 ℃, while controlling the maximum temperature difference to 3.98 ℃ at the end of discharge. Simultaneously, the proposed cooling scheme reduces the maximum temperature difference within the battery pack by 36.09 % at the beginning of the discharge period. This study provides a valuable reference into advancing BTMSs of battery pack-level for EVs.

Optimization of a microchannel heat sink with surrogate model and genetic algorithm

Flow maldistribution significantly impacts the performance and operation of microchannel heat sinks, which are extensively utilized across various industries. This study develops a surrogate model to address the flow maldistribution in microchannel heat sinks, employing a combination of genetic algorithm backpropagation neural networks and numerical simulations. Genetic algorithms optimize the microchannel heat sink manifold, involving five variables. The optimized manifold reduces the flow maldistribution factor by 38 % at a coolant inlet velocity of 0.1 m/s compared to that of the conventional structure. The mechanisms of this improvement are explored through comparative analyses of the manifold shape and pressure distribution. However, addressing the flow maldistribution alone proves insufficient in eliminating local hot zones within the microchannel heat sink. Consequently, this study introduces the concept of a corrected maldistribution factor and establishes a new structure guided by this factor as the optimization index. The results indicate a 47 % reduction in the maximum-to-minimum channel flow velocity ratio compared to that of the conventional structure at a coolant inlet velocity of 2 m/s. Furthermore, the maximum temperature drops by 20 K, significantly enhancing the flow and temperature distribution within the microchannel heat sink.

The optimization of roll-bond cold plate based on Taguchi-grey theory for server chips thermal management

The roll-bond cold plate, an economical and straightforward electronics liquid cooling approach, is highly promising to address the increasing electronics chip thermal management challenges. However, the roll-bond cold plate with staggered cellular flow channels, while having a sizable solid-liquid contact area and high heat dissipation potential, suffers from inadequate temperature uniformity and fluidity. This study addresses flow and temperature uniformity issues in current roll-bond cold plates by proposing a design—Direct Liquid Cooling Roll-Bond Plates (DLCRBP) tailored for high-performance server architectures. To investigate how regional combination, cellular diameter, and longitudinal spacing affect both thermal and flow performance, orthogonal experiments with diverse flow channel structures were conducted using the Taguchi-grey theory. COMSOL-based numerical simulation were used to analyze these experiment conditions. Multi-objective optimization, considering pressure drop, heat source temperature uniformity, and coolant temperature difference, was then performed using the grey correlation method. The optimized DLCRBP (A3B5C1) was fabricated, and its performance was compared with the staggered cellular DLCRBP (SCS), which is the control group without optimization, under various inlet flow velocities, heat source powers, and coolant inlet temperatures. Experimental comparisons illustrate that the optimized structure ensures outstanding temperature uniformity even at low inlet flow velocities. Specifically, at an inlet flow velocity of 0.2 m/s, the average and maximum temperature differences on the heat source's upper surface are 36.5 % and 75.3 % lower, respectively, compared to pre-optimization levels. Furthermore, A3B5C1's temperature uniformity improves with higher coolant inlet flow velocity and lower coolant inlet temperatures. At a coolant inlet flow velocity of 0.5 m/s or higher, A3B5C1 sustains the surface temperature of a 600 W chip below the thermal design's safe temperature of 77.8 °C, highlighting its enhanced performance.

Design and Numerical Study of Microchannel Liquid Cooling Structures for Lithium Batteries

To investigate the microchannel liquid cooling system of 18650 cylindrical lithium battery packs, cooling systems with varying numbers of microchannels are developed and they are analyzed through numerical simulations using COMSOL software. The findings reveal that lower coolant inlet temperatures correspond to lower maximum temperatures during discharge, with temperatures decreasing closer to the inlet. When the coolant passes through a 3.6 mm diameter or at an inlet flow rate of 0.1 m s−1, an increase in Reynolds number results in a decrease in the highest temperature of the cells. However, this temperature reduction slows down when Re exceeds 400. The annular channel cooling structure demonstrates superior cooling effects and temperature uniformity. Optimization opportunities exist to reduce the number of inlets. The dual‐inlet and dual‐outlet cooling structure has been enhanced by adjusting the number of channels in the annular channel design. This modification has resulted in a maximum temperature reduction of 4.62 K and a temperature difference of less than 5 K compared to the initial reference group, demonstrating effective cooling performance.

Numerical simulation for non-uniform PtCo catalyst degradation under different coolant conditions and its effect on PEMFC performance

Long-term non-uniform temperature, pressure and reaction rates distributions in the proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) may result in local catalyst degradation and deteriorate PEMFC performance. However, the problem of non-uniform catalyst degradation in PEMFC stacks is still incompletely understood due to the lacking of advanced experimental methods and three-dimensional (3D) catalyst aging models. In this study, a 3D PtCo alloy catalyst degradation model under voltage cycles is built and a 25 cm2 PEMFC stack containing realistic cathode, anode as well as coolant flow fields is used as the computational domain to analyze in detail the influence of non-uniform catalyst degradation on the performance of the PEMFC during different coolant conditions. The simulation results show that the non-uniform catalyst degradation is strongly dependent on the cathode flow field structure. It can alleviate non-uniform catalyst degradation as well as contribute to improving PEMFC performance when the coolant flow direction is the same as the air, and both coolant flow rate and inlet temperature also are found to significantly affect the local catalyst degradation behavior. Therefore, an optimally designed cathode flow fields structure as well as good water and heat management during operation can help to extend the service life of the PEMFC.

Optimal flow channel structure selection for hybrid locomotive battery pack liquid cooling system

Simulation studies were performed on the power battery pack to determine the most suitable flow channel configuration for the liquid cooling system. The study involved conducting thermal simulation analysis on four different channel types with varying structures under specific conditions, including an ambient temperature of 25°C, coolant inlet speed of 2L/min, and inlet temperature of 25°C. Based on a comparative analysis, it can be inferred that an increase in the number of parallel flow channels leads to a degradation in the temperature performance of the battery pack while concurrently enhancing the pressure performance of the coolant. After considering all evaluation factors, the liquid cooling channel structure design for the battery pack was determined to consist of two parallel channels.

A comprehensive analysis of thermal–hydraulic signatures in neutron noise of WWER-type reactors

The neutron noise phenomenon, occurring in all types of nuclear reactors, provides valuable insights into the dynamic behavior of these reactors. In this work, a well-justified approach for modeling neutron noise induced by thermal–hydraulic sources in a hexagonal reactor core is presented in detail. These sources encompass fluctuations in key features of the inlet coolant, including flow rate, temperature, and boric acid concentration. Our proposed approach touches on various aspects of the distribution of thermal–hydraulic parameters among coolant loops, accounting for both uniform and non-uniform distributions. The latter allows for the asymmetric and asynchronous distribution of their fluctuating component among the coolant loops. To manage such complexity, it becomes imperative to determine the contribution of each fuel assembly based on each coolant loop. To achieve this, CFD simulations are conducted for the downcomer and lower plenum of the reactor pressure vessel. These simulations provide essential data to establish the coolant mixing matrix, which accounts for non-uniform distributions. The obtained mixing matrix is subsequently integrated into our neutron noise simulator, DYNOSIM, ensuring the faithful reproduction of neutron noise. Our study comprehensively analyzes both uniform and non-uniform scenarios. The radial and axial distributions of neutron noise amplitude and phase are examined for these scenarios. Their qualitative verifications are conducted by prior works in this field. Furthermore, we compare one of the uniform scenarios with reference results obtained using a frequency domain simulator. Notably, our CFD simulation results closely match the experimental data. Our findings demonstrate the effectiveness and efficiency of this methodology in modeling and understanding neutron noise in hexagonal reactor cores.

Analysis of flow characteristics and heat transfer regulations for gas turbine blade middle double swirl cooling under different nozzle numbers

In this paper, the gas turbine blades middle double swirl cooling structure under diverse number of nozzles N are constructed to explore the heat transfer and flow behavior. The k-ω turbulence model are applied and the inlet coolant Reynolds number is 12500. The N vary by 4 to 11 and two cases are investigated. For case 1, the cross-sectional area of each nozzle is 6 mm2 for all structures. For case 2, the cross-sectional area of total nozzles stays the constant at 42mm2 when the N is varied. Results show that, in case 1, when the N increases, the area of the high heat exchange zone decreases but the distribution is more uniform. Moreover, the thermal performance factor ξ gets larger, but the average Nusselt number Nua decreases significantly. In case 2, when the N increases, the ratio of inclination to nozzle length increases for the jet near the outlet, Nua is almost constant but the heat transfer uniformity is improved. The best ξ is obtained when the N is 8. For case 1, as the N is increased, the Nua decreases significantly. Therefore, heat transfer and ξ should be considered by case 2 to select the optimum N.

Optimization design of proton exchange membrane fuel cell cooling plate based on dual-objective function topology theory

To enhance the cooling performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), the structural design of cooling channel of PEMFC with dual-objective function model is conducted based on topology optimization. The cooling characteristics of topological and traditional cooling plates under different channel depths (dc) and coolant inlet velocities (Vin) were comparatively investigated by constructing the fuel cell convective heat transfer experimental platform. The results indicate that with the increase of channel depth, the maximum and average temperatures of both cooling plates gradually decrease, while the pressure drop increases gradually. When the channel depth changes from 1 mm to 2 mm, the maximum temperatures of topological and traditional cooling plates decrease by 2.5 °C and 3.6 °C, respectively. At dc = 1 mm, the pressure drop of topological cooling plate is 16.7 Pa, which is 22.7% lower than that of traditional cooling plate. The maximum and average temperatures of cooling plate gradually decrease as coolant inlet velocity increases. At Vin = 0.25 m/s, the average temperature of topological cooling plate has the lowest value of 43.85 °C. The optimized cooling plate has better heat transfer efficiency, especially when the coolant velocity is large. The topological cooling plate has lower temperature uniformity index (IUT) and the maximum temperature under the same pump power consumption.

The Effect of a New Approach to Cooling the External Heat Exchange Surfaces of a Car Cooler with Air Nozzles on the Cooling Process

The paper deals with an experimental investigation of a new approach for cooling the external heat exchange surfaces of a cooler using an air pressure nozzle system. The G12+ coolant (50:50 ethylene glycol/water concentrate) is heated to an operating temperature of 80 °C and cooled by a cooler. Three ways of forced cooling of the external heat exchange surfaces of the cooler are experimentally compared—fan, nozzles, and a combination of nozzles and fan. The spacing between the nozzles and the cooler is variable from 60 to 170 mm in inline and staggered nozzle arrangements. Coolant temperatures in the cooler inlet and outlet pipes are recorded by thermistors. The air pressure nozzle system achieved an improvement in the cooling process compared to a conventional fan. At a spacing of 160 mm, the heat exchange surface is completely covered by the air flow, which leads to a reduction in cooling time and an increase in the temperature difference. The maximum temperature difference of 28.84 °C and 16.90 °C for staggered arrangement of nozzles at a spacing of 160 mm are achieved for the combination of nozzles with fan and nozzles, respectively. When comparing 60 mm and 160 mm spacing, there was an increase in thermal performance of 70.3%, 55.99%, 6.20%, and 1.83% for inline nozzles, staggered nozzles, fan with inline nozzles, and fan with staggered nozzles, respectively. The air nozzle system fully replaces the fan in the cooling process and achieves improved heat dissipation, making the cooling process significantly shorter and more efficient. In addition, the air nozzle system can also be used as an additional equipment for intensification of heat dissipation in combination with the fan.

Analisis Pembebanan Statis Komponen Crossbar Clinker Cooler dengan Variasi Beban Horizontal terhadap Lubang Pasak

A clinker cooler is a very important piece of equipment in the cement industry because it functions to cool the slag or clinker that comes out of the kiln. In the cement industry, the processed clinker is first heated in a rotary kiln at °C and then lowered to temperature again. Next, the crossbar hammer crusher driven by the drive plate crushes the clinker. Clinker is transferred from the cooler inlet to the cooler outlet by this device. The performance of the main clinker cooler due to small errors can cause the kiln to stop working or disrupt other operations, such as in the mile finish area. In certain cases, cement production was disrupted due to a break in the crossbar component in the clinker cooler using the tested software Ansys Workbench 2020. It is hoped that the data from this simulation can be used as a benchmark between the results of the simulation, it can be used as a benchmark between the results of the best modified design for increasing crossbar durability through statistical loading tests with the FEA method.

Thermoelectric cooler with embedded teardrop-shaped milli-channel heat sink for electronics cooling

Thermoelectric coolers (TECs) offer a site-specific, on-demand, and solid-state thermal management solution for on-chip electronics cooling. To maximize their cooling performance, it is essential to integrate an effective heat exchanger, such as microchannels, on the TEC’s hot side. However, traditional microchannel heat sinks pose challenges, including the necessity for high-cost equipment and the manifestation of deleterious parasitic contact thermal resistance with the TEC. Recent studies have demonstrated the superior performance of teardrop-shaped microchannels compared to their conventional counterparts, yet their effectiveness at the milli-scale remains unexplored. In this work, through systematic numerical simulations across nine milli-channels with distinct variable cross-sections, we propose a teardrop-shaped milli-channel heat sink designed for fabrication through cost-effective mechanical machining. The optimized teardrop-shaped milli-channel exhibits a superior overall thermo-hydraulic performance evaluation factor (PEC) of approximately 1.8 with respect to its rectangular cross-sectional counterpart. Furthermore, we seamlessly embed the designed milli-channel heat sink into the substrate of the TEC to mitigate the parasitic contact thermal resistance. Measurements on the TEC embedded with the teardrop-shaped milli-channel heat sink show that the cold end temperature reaches a minimum value of −18.6 °C at an optimal input electrical current of 3.5 A and an inlet coolant flow velocity of 0.2 m/s. This temperature represents an improvement of approximately 3.5 °C and 4.4 °C compared to the TEC with an attached teardrop-shaped milli-channel and a conventional water block heat sink, respectively, under identical operating conditions. Additionally, a prototype TEC cooling system with the embedded teardrop-shaped milli-channel for high-power field-effect transistor (FET) cooling is demonstrated. Operating at an input electrical current of 3.5 A and an inlet flow velocity of 0.6 m/s, our proposed TEC cooling system achieves a steady-state working temperature of 51.3 °C for the FET at a high heat flux of 75 kW/m2, outperforming the TEC with an attached teardrop-shaped milli-channel and a conventional water block heat sink by approximately 1.4 °C and 2 °C, respectively.

A Comparative Numerical Analysis of Cold Plates for Thermal Management of Chips With Hotspots

Abstract Thermal and hydraulic performances of seven water-cooled minichannel cold plates with different internal structures are compared using numerical analysis. Recent increasing demands for high-performance computing have led to serious challenges in the thermal management of electronic devices. In addition to dangerous on-chip temperatures, heterogeneous integration and local regions of elevated temperatures (hotspots) lead to nonuniform chip-level temperature distributions. As a result, the lifespan and reliability of electronic devices are adversely impacted. Due to the limitation of the air-cooled heat sinks, several new methods, such as liquid-cooled microchannel cold plates are developed to remedy these challenges. The objective of this work is to provide a comparative numerical study of the effectiveness of different minichannel cold plate internal structures in the thermal management of a chip with a nonuniform power map and a hotspot. Cold plate thermal resistance, on-chip temperature uniformity, and pump power were the metrics used for this comparison. For four coolant inlet flow rates within the laminar regime, it is seen that increasing the inlet flowrate enhances the thermal resistance of all cold plate designs while creating less uniformity in chip-level temperature distribution relative to the conventional straight microchannels. Concentrating pin fins on the hotspot showed a 7.2% reduction in thermal resistance, despite increasing temperature nonuniformity by about 7.6%. However, it is observed that hotspot-focused pin fins are more effective in lowering the chip's maximum temperature. Obtaining lower chip-level nonuniformity may be possible by modifying the inlet and outlet conditions of the cold plates.

Lithium Battery Thermal Management Based on Lightweight Stepped-Channel Liquid Cooling

Abstract This study proposes a stepped-channel liquid-cooled battery thermal management system based on lightweight. The impact of channel width, cell-to-cell lateral spacing, contact height, and contact angle on the effectiveness of the thermal control system (TCS) is investigated using numerical simulation. The weight sensitivity factor is adopted to evaluate the effect of TCS weight (mTCS) on the maximum temperature (Tmax) of battery pack. Results suggest that the channel width plays the most critical role, followed by cell-to-cell lateral spacing and contact angle, while the contact height has minimal influence. Four parameters that affect the thermal balance performance of battery pack, including the number of channels, and baffles, baffle angle, and coolant inlet velocity, are presented using orthogonal experiment. Results indicate that the number of channels and baffle angle have a significant influence on the thermal balance of battery pack, while thermal performance is largely insensitive to coolant inlet velocity and the number of baffles. Based on the analysis stated in this work, an improved design of the TCS is presented that reduces weight by 54.08% while increasing Tmax only by 2.52 K.

Research on thermal management system of lithium-ion battery with a new type of spider web liquid cooling channel and phase change materials

Phase change materials (PCM) possess outstanding temperature control capabilities; however, it is difficult for pure PCM to satisfy the thermal management requirements under high discharge rates (4C-5C) in electric vehicles. This study designs and numerically simulates a Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) that combines PCM with a spider web liquid cooling channel and compares it to pure PCM cooling. The results reveal that the new hybrid BTMS exhibits exceptional heat dissipation performance. Compared to pure PCM cooling, the hybrid cooling structure can maintain the Tmax of the battery module below 40 °C. Under a 5C discharge rate, the Tmax and ΔTmax of the battery module can be controlled at 39.6 °C and 4.9 °C. Based on this, the study analyzes the effects of coolant inlet Reynolds number, inlet temperature, and ambient temperature on the battery's Tmax, ΔTmax, coolant pressure drop, and PCM phase change rate under different discharge rates. This study aims to control the liquid phase rate at around 80 % and to minimize the pressure drop in the coolant as much as possible while meeting thermal management requirements. Finally, in a low temperature environment of −30 °C, with an inlet Re of 300 and an inlet temperature of 7 °C, the heating rate of the battery module with the newly designed hybrid cooling structure can reach 3.67 °C/min.