Carbohydrate Production Research Articles

Dietary fibre profiles of Turkish Tombul hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) and hazelnut skin

Dietary fibre (DF) profiles of natural hazelnut, roasted hazelnut and hazelnut skin were analyzed. Insoluble (IDF) and soluble (SDF) DFs were examined for monosaccharide and glycosyl-linkage compositions using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Total DF contents of natural hazelnut, roasted hazelnut, and hazelnut skin were 17.8, 15.4, and 69.8%, respectively; majority of which (>96%) were water-insoluble. IDFs of natural and roasted hazelnuts were composed of cellulose (~49%), pectic polysaccharides (~30%), and xyloglucans (~15%), whereas that of hazelnut skin made up lignin (~55%) and fibre polysaccharides (cellulose, pectic polysaccharides, and xyloglucans, ~45%). Unlike the ones from other sources, pectic polysaccharides in IDFs had lower proportion of smooth region and higher proportion of hairy region that is heavily branched with arabinan and galactan side chains. Xyloglucans were also densely branched with monomeric and/or dimeric side chains. SDFs of the samples were composed of heavily branched heteromannans (~60%), slightly branched pectic polysaccharides (~25%), and xyloglucans possessing monomeric side chains (~5%). These results suggest that hazelnut is rich in DFs that have potential to improve large bowel function and hazelnut skin, a byproduct of hazelnut roasting process, could be utilized for the production of functional carbohydrates having prebiotic capacities.

Carbon-Based Catalysts for Biodiesel Production—A Review

In recent years, a new class of superior heterogeneous acid catalyst for biodiesel production has emerged. These catalysts offer advantages over their predecessors such as high surface area, elevated acid site density, enhanced catalyst activity, good operation stability and relevant economic affordability in an environmentally friendly frame. This review was concerned with carbon-based solid acid (CBAS) catalysts derived from both carbohydrate and pyrolysis products. A series of CBASs with various origins such as D-glucose, sucrose, starch, cellulose and vegetable oil asphalt, converted to char and sulphonated, have been explored as potential heterogeneous catalysts. Catalyst preparation and synthesis methods were briefly summarized. Catalyst characterization and performance for biofuels related reactions were elucidated, identifying potential research applications. Three catalysts in particular were identified as having potential for industrial application and requiring further research.

Effect of Root Restriction on the Growth, Photosynthesis Rate, and Source and Sink Relationship of Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) Grown in Soilless Culture.

Chilli (Capsicum annum L.) plant is a high economic value vegetable in Malaysia, cultivated in soilless culture containers. In soilless culture, the adoption of small container sizes to optimize the volume of the growing substrate could potentially reduce the production cost, but will lead to a reduction of plant growth and yield. By understanding the physiological mechanism of the growth reduction, several potential measures could be adopted to improve yield under restricted root conditions. The mechanism of growth reduction of plants subjected to root restriction remains unclear. This study was conducted to determine the physiological mechanism of growth reduction of root-restricted chilli plants grown in polyvinyl-chloride (PVC) column of two different volumes, 2392 cm3(root-restricted) and 9570 cm3(control) in soilless culture. Root restriction affected plant growth, physiological process, and yield of chilli plants. Root restriction reduced the photosynthesis rate and photochemical activity of PSII, and increased relative chlorophyll content. Limited root growth in root restriction caused an accumulation of high levels of sucrose in the stem and suggested a transition of the stem as a major sink organ for photoassimilate. Growth reduction in root restriction was not related to limited carbohydrate production, but due to the low sink demand from the roots. Reduction of the total yield per plant about, 23% in root restriction was concomitant, with a slightly increased harvest index which reflected an increased photoassimilate partitioning to the fruit production and suggested more efficient fruits production in the given small plant size of root restriction.

Gene regulatory response to hyposalinity in the brown seaweed Fucus vesiculosus

BackgroundRockweeds are among the most important foundation species of temperate rocky littoral shores. In the Baltic Sea, the rockweed Fucus vesiculosus is distributed along a decreasing salinity gradient from the North Atlantic entrance to the low-salinity regions in the north-eastern margins, thus, demonstrating a remarkable tolerance to hyposalinity. The underlying mechanisms for this tolerance are still poorly understood. Here, we exposed F. vesiculosus from two range-margin populations to the hyposaline (2.5 PSU - practical salinity unit) conditions that are projected to occur in the region by the end of this century as a result of climate change. We used transcriptome analysis (RNA-seq) to determine the gene expression patterns associated with hyposalinity acclimation, and examined the variation in these patterns between the sampled populations.ResultsHyposalinity induced different responses in the two populations: in one, only 26 genes were differentially expressed between salinity treatments, while the other population demonstrated up- or downregulation in 3072 genes. In the latter population, the projected future hyposalinity induced an acute response in terms of antioxidant production. Genes associated with membrane composition and structure were also heavily involved, with the upregulation of fatty acid and actin production, and the downregulation of ion channels and alginate pathways. Changes in gene expression patterns clearly indicated an inhibition of the photosynthetic machinery, with a consequent downregulation of carbohydrate production. Simultaneously, energy consumption increased, as revealed by the upregulation of genes associated with respiration and ATP synthesis. Overall, the genes that demonstrated the largest increase in expression were ribosomal proteins involved in translation pathways. The fixation rate of SNP:s was higher within genes responding to hyposalinity than elsewhere in the transcriptome.ConclusionsThe high fixation rate in the genes coding for salinity acclimation mechanisms implies strong selection for them. The among-population differentiation that we observed in the transcriptomic response to hyposalinity stress suggests that populations of F. vesiculosus may differ in their tolerance to future desalination, possibly as a result of local adaptation to salinity conditions within the Baltic Sea. These results emphasise the importance of considering interspecific genetic variation when evaluating the consequences of environmental change.

Characterization of a novel marine unicellular alga, Pseudoneochloris sp. strain NKY372003 as a high carbohydrate producer

Production of biofuels and fine chemicals from biomass-derived carbohydrates through biorefinery attracts much attention because it is recognized as an environmentally friendly process. Microalgae can serve as promising carbohydrate producers for biorefinery rather than woody and crop biomass due to high biomass productivity, high CO2 fixation, and no competition with food production. However, microalgae with high carbohydrate productivity have not been well investigated despite intensive studies of microalgal lipid production. In this study, the carbohydrate production of Pseudoneochloris sp. strain NKY372003 isolated as a high carbohydrate producer, was investigated. Cultivation conditions with various combinations of nutrient contents and photon flux density were examined to maximize the biomass and carbohydrate productivities. At the optimal condition, the biomass and carbohydrate production of this strain reached 8.11 ± 0.37g/L and 5.5 ± 0.2g/L, respectively. As far as we know, this is the highest carbohydrate production by microalgae among ever reported. Cell staining with Lugol's solution visualized intracellular starch granules. Because algal starch can be converted to biofuels and building blocks of fine chemicals, Pseudoneochloris sp. NKY372003 will be a promising candidate for production of fermentable carbohydrates towards biofuels and fine chemicals production.

Evolutionary relationships among bifidobacteria and their hosts and environments

BackgroundThe assembly of animal microbiomes is influenced by multiple environmental factors and host genetics, although the relative importance of these factors remains unclear. Bifidobacteria (genus Bifidobacterium, phylum Actinobacteria) are common first colonizers of gut microbiomes in humans and inhabit other mammals, social insects, food, and sewages. In humans, the presence of bifidobacteria in the gut has been correlated with health-promoting benefits. Here, we compared the genome sequences of a subset of the over 400 Bifidobacterium strains publicly available to investigate the adaptation of bifidobacteria diversity. We tested 1) whether bifidobacteria show a phylogenetic signal with their isolation sources (hosts and environments) and 2) whether key traits encoded by the bifidobacteria genomes depend on the host or environment from which they were isolated. We analyzed Bifidobacterium genomes available in the PATRIC and NCBI repositories and identified the hosts and/or environment from which they were isolated. A multilocus phylogenetic analysis was conducted to compare the genetic relatedness the strains harbored by different hosts and environments. Furthermore, we examined differences in genomic traits and genes related to amino acid biosynthesis and degradation of carbohydrates.ResultsWe found that bifidobacteria diversity appears to have evolved with their hosts as strains isolated from the same host were non-randomly associated with their phylogenetic relatedness. Moreover, bifidobacteria isolated from different sources displayed differences in genomic traits such as genome size and accessory gene composition and on particular traits related to amino acid production and degradation of carbohydrates. In contrast, when analyzing diversity within human-derived bifidobacteria, we observed no phylogenetic signal or differences on specific traits (amino acid biosynthesis genes and CAZymes).ConclusionsOverall, our study shows that bifidobacteria diversity is strongly adapted to specific hosts and environments and that several genomic traits were associated with their isolation sources. However, this signal is not observed in human-derived strains alone. Looking into the genomic signatures of bifidobacteria strains in different environments can give insights into how this bacterial group adapts to their environment and what types of traits are important for these adaptations.

Revealing the role of adsorption in ciprofloxacin and sulfadiazine elimination routes in microalgae

Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) removal coupling with bioenergy production by microalgae has attracted growing attention. However, the biological interactions between PPCPs and microalgae are unclear during microalgal biosorption and biodegradation of PPCPs. In this study, an optimal ciprofloxacin (CIP) and sulfadiazine (SDZ) removal efficiency were achieved 100% and 54.53% with carbohydrate productivity of >1000 mg L−1 d−1 by Chlamydomonas sp. Tai-03, respectively. The elimination routes indicated that CIP removal was mainly achieved by biodegradation (65.05%) whereas SDZ was mainly removed by photolysis (35.60%). The visualization evidence of microscopic imaging Raman spectrometer supported the favorable biosorption of CIP due to its positive charge (+10.20 mV). Meanwhile, the tendency for gradual reduction of CIP in extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) indicated that suspended microalgal cell facilitated CIP uptake and biodegradation. Furthermore, photolysis and biodegradation pathways were thoroughly analyzed to demonstrate that intermediates were less toxic and had no adverse effect on the subsequent ethanol conversion. This study provides valuable information for the development of a novel microalgal PPCPs removal. These findings reveal the possible biological mechanisms of biosorption and biodegradation of PPCPs in microalgae, which could further enhance the feasibility of microalgal applications for simultaneous PPCPs remediation and alternative energy production.

Removal of high concentration of nitrate and phosphate from aqueous mixotrophic solution by Chlorella vulgaris

Microalgae exhibit large potential as an alternative to advanced biological nutrient removal in wastewater or simulated wastewater at laboratory conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the optimum conditions for nutrient removal. This study investigated the total carbohydrate, chlorophyll-a, -b, carotenoid and lipid production and nutrient removal of mixotrophic microalgae ( C. vulgaris ) cultured in different nitrate/phosphate rich modified BG-11 medium (0-200 mg L -1 ) at longer growth periods (10 days). The mean removal efficiency of NO 3 -N (in nitrate source), and PO 4 -P (in phosphate source) (88.29 ±0.12 and 31.06 ±0.22%, respectively) was reached in the mixotrophic culture. Under the optimum conditions (200 µmol photon m⁻ 2 s⁻ 1 16 h photoperiod and 28% inoculum size), 63.61-99.05% of NO 3 - and 13.97-63.77% of PO₄ 3 ⁻were successfully removed. The lipid and carbohydrate productivities were 27.95 and 29.53 g L −1 d −1 , 0.2869 and 0.2435 g L -1 d -1 respectively, which were approximately 9-12 times higher than those in photoautotrophic condition. The BG-11 growth media containing 10 g L −1 glucose and excessive amount of nutrient effect results indicate that the Chl-a, -b and carotenoid contents of C. vulgaris is higher at 100 mg L -1 N and 50 mg L -1 P growth media composition compared to 100% growth media composition. Thereby, the findings of this study provided an insight into the role of algal uptake of nutrients under the nutrient rich mixotrophic medium for the future algae-based treatment application.

Isolation and characterization of novel acidophilic microalgae from abandoned mining site area for carbohydrate biosynthesis and its kinetic growth study in photobioreactor

Microalgae have gained attention as an alternative feedstock for biofuel production due to its potential to accumulate carbohydrate, protein and lipid. However, current microalgae culture technology has been impeded by low biomass production, carbohydrate accumulation and contamination issue. In order to overcome this limitation, this study involves the isolation, screening and identification of acidophilic microalgae from Frog Hill. Then, the effect of different initial pH on growth and carbohydrate productivity was studied toward the selected microalgae. Further cultivation was done in indoor and outdoor using 15L fabricated PBR under optimize pH condition. At the end of experiment, the growth kinetic and carbohydrate productivity for both conditions were evaluated. Total of 4 native acidophilic microalgae were successfully isolated and was identified using 18s RNA. The Scenedesmus parvus was exhibited highest biomass production and carbohydrate productivity up to 1.2640 ± 0.001 g L−1 and 15.47 ± 0.048 mg L−1 d−1 under highly acidic condition. It also showed a better performance under outdoor cultivation up to 9.54% compared to indoor cultivation. Hence, this research paper showed that the potential of novel acidophilic microalgae survives under extremely condition with high carbohydrate biosynthesis, which could be useful for industrial application.

Minapadi Trend, Need and Sustainability in Indonesia

Technology created to simplify human’s life. There amount of technology has been created. Current technology is the technology that used by humans from the past. Minapadi is technologies that has been created from the long time ago in agriculture and fisheries. Minapadi has existed in Indonesia since centuries ago. In past few years minapadi have become a trend in Indonesian article. This study literature conducted to study when minapadi become a trend and the urgency minapadi in Indonesia. Google scholar and Science Direct literature used in this literature study. This is to gather literature from Indonesian database, and for the comparison used literature from Science Direct. Minapadi used as keyword in Google Scholar, and in Science Direct used minapadi and "Rice Fish". In Indonesia there are an increase of minapadi article since 2016. It is dominated by economic study. Minapadi has the advantage of efficiency land for carbohydrate and protein production. Increase of number article minapadi shows an interest in minapadi. Meanwhile the growth of minapadi only increased by 48,083 hectares over 34 years. More research is needed to increase the use of minapadi, especially in the area adoption of technology, and environment for balancing the ecosystems.

Red luminescent solar concentrators to enhance Scenedesmus sp. biomass productivity

Increasing biomass productivity of an outdoor mass microalgal culture is the main aim of any large-scale algal producer. Under nutrient enriched conditions, light is the primary limits to growth of any microalgae. This normally results in a high level of photolimitation when paddle wheel driven raceway ponds are used as no light can penetrate beyond the top few centimetres of the culture. To achieve high biomass productivity, there is a need to develop an efficient system to deliver light into the depth of microalgal cultures in raceway ponds. We investigated red luminescent solar concentrators (LSCs) in outdoor raceway ponds to downgrade the sunlight, re-emit and, deliver it into the depth of Scenedesmus sp. cultures operated at 21 cm depth. Biomass productivity of Scenedesmus sp. significantly increased by 18.5% when red LSCs were used (9.4 g m−2 d−1). Scenedesmus sp. protein (52.9% of biomass) and lipid (16.5% of biomass) contents with red LSCs were also 15% and 10% higher than those in control with no LSCs. Protein, lipid and carbohydrate productivity of Scenedesmus sp. were also improved by 35%, 20% and 16% when red LSCs used. Therefore, if the aim is biomass production for animal feed, there would be 18.5% less cultivation area for generating the same biomass productivity using red LSCs. This can lead to a significant reduction in the cost of biomass production.

Miniaturized culture method for the statistical study of growth rate and carbohydrate content of Picochlorum sp. D8 isolated from the Persian Gulf

The Microplate-based method is a useful means for high-throughput screening and kinetic studies of microalgal growth. In this study, the statistical evaluation of growth and carbohydrate production by a marine microalga, designated as Picochlorum sp. D8, which is taxonomically affiliated to Picochlorum sp. SENEW3 was done on a miniaturized scale. Initially, the significance of various factors was studied by using the Plackett–Burman Design. The Central Composite Design was applied to compute the optimum level of significant factors, e.g., phosphate (KH2PO4+K2HPO4) and FeCl3·6H2O. Maximum carbohydrate production was obtained at low phosphate (0.148 g/L) and FeCl3·6H2O (0.009 g/L) concentrations. The validation experiments were carried out under optimal conditions, where carbohydrate content increased by 3.5 times. The analyses of the results showed a quadratic effect of phosphate and FeCl3·6H2O concentrations.

INFLUENCE OF SALINITY ON GROWTH AND ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTENT OF CARROT (Daucus carota L.)

Carrot production of valuable carotenes, carbohydrate and protein are hindered by elevated salinity levels in many parts of the world. To assess this problem, germination and growth of two carrot cultivars (Daucus carota cvs Jordan and Napoli) were studied in vivo and in vitro under different salt stress concentrations (0, 75, and 150 mM NaCl). Seeds were directly or gradually exposed to these salt concentrations. With elevated salinity levels, significant reductions in growth parameters (dry shoot weight, fresh shoot weight, shoot length, root length, and root number) were observed. Also, significant difference in germination percentage was observed at 150 mM NaCl in both cultivars when compared with control treatment (90% germination percentage in Napoli and 71% in Jordan cultivar). Growth rate, tolerant index, and relative water content (RWC) declined as salinity increased. The 150 mM NaCl salinity treatment significantly reduced the shoot chlorophyll and protein content, but increased carbohydrate content. Lesser impairment by the gradual exposure of seedling to salinity provides an opportunity to study the acquirement of salt tolerance.

Strategies for enhanced lipid production of Desmodesmus sp. mutated by atmospheric and room temperature plasma with a new efficient screening method

This research provides a promising method to rapidly select optimal mutants for high-lipid production. The green microalgae Desmodesmus sp. was mutated using atmospheric and room temperature plasma (ARTP) to develop high lipid-producing mutants via radiation breeding for cost effective production of biodiesel. A new screening method was developed and was applied to obtain an optimal mutant strain that was designated as AT60-15. Genetic stability of the optimal strains was measured using three-generation reproduction testing. The highest triglyceride (TAG) production was 325.83 ± 3.02 mg L−1, which was 2.34-fold higher than that of the control group. Furthermore, compared with the original strain, the mutant strains showed rapid lipid accumulation but low levels of protein and carbohydrate production. In addition, AT60-15 displayed a lower actual quantum yield Y(II) and suffered more stress from ARTP than the original strain as evaluated by maximum quantum yield Fv/Fm. Analysis of the real-time quantitative PCR showed that mutant strains had a higher expression of lipid genes, including accD, me6562, pepc6833, and dgat7566. The ITS gene fragments showed that AT60-15 mutagen belonged to Desmodesmus.

Optimization studies on cellulase and xylanase production by Rhizopus oryzae UC2 using raw oil palm frond leaves as substrate under solid state fermentation

Increasing energy demands call for sustainable alternative sources. Solid state fermentation (SSF) of raw oil palm frond leaves (OPFL) as the substrate to produce extracellular cellulases and xylanase by a novel Rhizopus oryzae UC2 (GenBank accession no. MF767597) was optimized. Optimum SSF conditions (30 °C, 40% moisture content, 2.0 × 108 spores/g inoculum size) yielded the maximum carboxymethyl cellulase (CMCase) (94.68 U/g), filter paperase (FPase) (25.46 U/g), β-glucosidase (145.47 U/g) and xylanase (213.99 U/g) activities, showing a broad pH range of between 6.0 and 12.0. Proteome analysis of crude enzyme cocktail revealed three β-glucosidases, as well as one endo-β-1,4-glucanase, exoglanase and endo-β-1,4-xylanase each. Activities of the enzyme complex were maximal at an acidic pH and temperature that ranged between pH 3.0–5.0 and 50–60 °C, respectively. In situ hydrolysis of OPFL released various concentrations of sugars viz. glucose (26.74 mg/g), xylose (1.44 mg/g), fructose (50.8 mg/g) and cellobiose (58.31 mg/g). Moreover, CMCase, FPase, β-glucosidase and xylanase exhibited half-lives of 5.13, 1.48, 18.81, 9.23 h when incubated at 60 °C, respectively. Thus, the desirable qualities of R. oryzae UC2 seen here supported its prospective biocatalytic role for timely and safe production of digestible carbohydrates from agro-industrial biomass for the subsequent biotransformation into biofuel.

Effect of nitrogen concentration on the growth rate and biochemical composition of the microalga, Isochrysis galbana

Nitrogen represents a critical macronutrient that regulates the metabolism and consequently, the growth and biochemical composition of microalgae. In this study, the effect of different nitrogen concentrations (0, 36, 72, 144 and 288 mg/L) on the growth rate and biochemical composition of Isochrysis galbana was investigated. Cell growth, pigments and protein content of I. galbana biomass decreased with diminishing nitrogen concentration; while carbohydrates showed the highest value, 47%, in case of total nitrogen deprivation. Poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) increased five-fold under sufficient nitrogen concentrations (72 mg/L), compared to nitrogen deprivation. In contrast, concentration of saturated fatty acids (SFAs), 75.79% under nitrogen deprivation, was higher than in case of nitrogen sufficiency, 36.63%. The highest carbohydrate, protein and lipid productivities observed were 156.7, 326.2 and 264.6 mg/L under nitrogen concentrations of 72, 0 and 72 mg/L, respectively. The results of this study indicate that nitrogen concentration significantly affects the growth and biochemical compositions of I. galbana.

Production of Carbohydrates from Cardoon Pre-Treated by Acid-Catalyzed Steam Explosion and Enzymatic Hydrolysis

Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) is a promising crop from which to obtain oilseeds and lignocellulosic biomass. Acid-catalyzed steam explosion is a thermochemical process that can efficiently pre-treat lignocellulosic biomass. The drawback is the production of a high number of carbohydrate degradation products in the liquid fraction that could inhibit microbial growth. In this work, the lignocellulosic biomass of cardoon, gathered from a dedicated field, were used as the raw material for the production of fermentable monosaccharides by employing acid-catalyzed steam explosion. The raw material was pre-soaked with a dilute 1% (w/w) sulfuric acid solution and then subjected to steam explosion under three different severity conditions. The recovered slurry was separated into solid and liquid fractions, which were individually characterized to determine total carbohydrate and inhibitor concentrations. The slurry and the washed solid fraction underwent enzymatic hydrolysis to release glucose and pentose monosaccharides. By conducting the pre-treatment at 175 °C for 35 min and hydrolyzing the obtained slurry, a yield of 33.17 g of monosaccharides/100 g of cardoon was achieved. At the same conditions, 4.39 g of inhibitors/100 g of cardoon were produced.

Feasibility of improving carbohydrate content of Chlorella S4, a native isolate from the Persian Gulf using sequential statistical designs

Microalgal carbohydrates can serve as feedstock for bioethanol production. Environmental and/or nutritional factors influence the carbohydrate content of microalgae and optimization of culture condition has a key role in the economic production of bioethanol. This research has evaluated the optimization of the carbohydrate content of a marine microalga isolate from the Persian Gulf. The Plackett-Burman design was used to screen the most effective parameters responsible for carbohydrate production. Then, the levels of two effective factors, total phosphate (KH2PO4+K2HPO4) and initial pH, were optimized by two types of Response Surface Method designs (Central Composite and historical data designs). Maximum carbohydrate production was obtained at a low concentration of phosphate (0.031 g/L) and initial pH of 5.95. Under optimal condition, the concentration of carbohydrate was increased by 1.9 folds, from 0.12 g/L (0.2 g/g of dry biomass) to 0.230 g/L (0.365 g/g of dry biomass). The carbohydrate content of microalga hydrolysate was also evaluated by the HPLC method, and the results showed that glucose made about 3.19% (w/w) of total carbohydrates. This study represents the isolation and determination of a promising native and non-invasive microalga for bioethanol production, and subsequently enhancement of its carbohydrate content for the same goal.

A metabolomic approach to investigate effects of ocean acidification on a polar microalga Chlorella sp.

Ocean acidification, due to increased levels of anthropogenic carbon dioxide, is known to affect the physiology and growth of marine phytoplankton, especially in polar regions. However, the effect of acidification or carbonation on cellular metabolism in polar marine phytoplankton still remains an open question. There is some evidence that small chlorophytes may benefit more than other taxa of phytoplankton. To understand further how green polar picoplankton could acclimate to high oceanic CO2, studies were conducted on an Antarctic Chlorella sp. Chlorella sp. maintained its growth rate (∼0.180 d-1), photosynthetic quantum yield (Fv/Fm = ∼0.69) and chlorophyll a (0.145 fg cell-1) and carotenoid (0.06 fg cell-1) contents under high CO2, while maximum rates of electron transport decreased and non-photochemical quenching increased under elevated CO2. GCMS-based metabolomic analysis reveal that this polar Chlorella strain modulated the levels of metabolites associated with energy, amino acid, fatty acid and carbohydrate production, which could favour its survival in an increasingly acidified ocean.

Proteomic dissection of the chloroplast: Moving beyond photosynthesis

Chloroplast, the photosynthetic machinery, converts photoenergy to ATP and NADPH, which powers the production of carbohydrates from atmospheric CO2 and H2O. It also serves as a major production site of multivariate pro-defense molecules, and coordinate with other organelles for cell defense. Chloroplast harbors 30–50% of total cellular proteins, out of which 80% are membrane residents and are difficult to solubilize. While proteome profiling has illuminated vast areas of biological protein space, a great deal of effort must be invested to understand the proteomic landscape of the chloroplast, which plays central role in photosynthesis, energy metabolism and stress-adaptation. Therefore, characterization of chloroplast proteome would not only provide the foundation for future investigation of expression and function of chloroplast proteins, but would open up new avenues for modulation of plant productivity through synchronizing chloroplastic key components. In this review, we summarize the progress that has been made to build new understanding of the chloroplast proteome and implications of chloroplast dynamicsing generate metabolic energy and modulating stress adaptation.