Bible Translation Research Articles

The Bible and distortion of culture: Normalised distortions of Vhavenḓa culture through the Bible

The Tshivenḓa Bible Translations 1936 and 1998 are language tools, which have since the advent of Christianity in Venḓa somewhat contributed to the shaping and reshaping of the language and culture of the Vhavenḓa people. These language tools have also contributed largely to distortion of the Vhavenḓa language and culture and unfortunately the distortions have become normalised to a great extent. The argument in this article is that in as much as the distortions have become normalised through these language tools, they can be reversed through disobedience at various levels and epistemic relinking with the values, customs, traditions and practices of the Vhavenḓa people.Contribution: This article highlights language and cultural distortions inherent in Tshivenda Bible translations (1936 and 1998), and it proposes decolonial measures to rectify these distortions given the widespread use of these texts in the culture.

Beowulf, the Wrath of God and the Fall of the Angels

ABSTRACT Beowulf’s anger has typically been viewed either negatively, as a sign of his monstrosity, or positively, as a form of furor heroicus (heroic anger). This article argues that the hero’s battle-fury is a manifestation of the wrath of God. Through comparison with Genesis A and other Old English biblical poems, it identifies the Fall of the Angels as an important new context for Beowulf’s first two monster-fights. Countering arguments that Beowulf is a flawed or even failed hero, it proposes that when read in the light of Old English biblical poetry, Beowulf emerges not as frenzied berserker but as a righteous avenger whose anger is controlled and directed against evil.

Demonization of Local Terminology in Bible Translation: The Case of Nat in the Kachin Bible

There are cases in which Bible translation has involved the demonization of local terminology. This is the case with the translation of the Bible into the Kachin language of Myanmar (Burma). The pre-Christian religion of Kachins was Nat worship, which provided religious vocabulary items for the Kachin Bible translation. The local term Nat (meaning “spirit”) was used for several demonological terms in the Kachin Bible. This study argues that the local term Nat was demonized in the process of Bible translation, resulting in a lasting and damaging impact on the biblical and theological understanding of Kachin Christians.

Translating 1 Corinthians 12.31a as a Rhetorical Question

Understanding ζηλοῦτε in the indicative mood, this paper proposes the following translation of 1 Cor 12.31a: “Yet, are you continuously striving for the ‘greater’ spiritual gifts?” Considering the flow of Paul’s arguments, the indicative reading of ζηλοῦτε should be preferred to the imperative reading that is predominantly found in Bible translations and scholarly discussions. Furthermore, translating this indicative ζηλοῦτε interrogatively (i.e., as Paul asking a rhetorical question)—rather than as a simple statement—can help Bible readers better recognize the rhetorical force of the passage. This paper defends this indicative-interrogative translation by challenging four common objections to the indicative reading of 1 Cor 12.31a.

The Treatment of Unflagged New Testament Code Switching in English Bible Translations

The New Testament contains over 3,000 non-Greek words. Many of these are simply cases of loanwords, seen especially in the case of proper nouns and toponyms. However, others retain their foreign value in the text, illustrated especially by the addition of an in-text translation or explanation. These examples of flagged code switching point to further examples of unflagged code switching. After dealing with the function of code switching in the New Testament, this article analyzes the treatment of nine examples of unflagged code switching in forty-four passages. The results point to a clear distinction in the translational practice between traditional and modern Bible versions.

Book Review: A History of German Jewish Bible Translation by Abigail Gillman

Book Review: <i>A History of German Jewish Bible Translation</i> by Abigail Gillman

Does Luke Replace “Son of God” with Non-filial Language?

In 2005 missiologist Rick Brown argued on the basis of Synoptic parallels that, in a few cases, Luke translates Son of God language with non-filial language, especially the term “Christ.” The argument supported the practice of using non-filial renderings of Son of God language in Bible translations made for Muslims, the stated intent being to convey the meaning of the text more clearly and to avoid offense and misunderstanding. This article tests Brown’s claim, mainly by considering the literary relationships between the Synoptic Gospels and by examining every Lukan parallel of Markan and/or Matthean Son of God language used with reference to Jesus. The results of the investigation contradict Brown’s thesis, showing that the relevant Lukan texts do not provide direct support for the rendering of Son of God language with non-filial language.

An Invitation to Biblical Poetry

An Invitation to Biblical Poetry

The Evolution of Western Bible Translation Thoughts (Note 1)

With a history of over 2,000 years, Bible translation is an indispensable part of the whole history of translation. The translation thoughts, principles, and skills proposed by Bible translators are an essential chapter of the world translation theory. The paper firstly overviews the Bible translation practice diachronically. Afterward, it sorts out the Bible translation thoughts put forward by western translators including the translation view, readers’ response, as well as translator’s subjectivity. In this way, the understanding of western Bible translation theories in China is enhanced.

Language and religion in Tudor Cornwall: the testimony of Sacrament an Alter

This article is centred around a detailed review of D.H. Frost’s new (2023) critical edition and translation of the Cornish and Latin text Sacrament an Alter, in both its theological/historical and its philological/linguistic aspects. First, Dr Frost’s exposition of his text’s remarkable background is placed against the constantly changing character of official Tudor ideology, and the ecclesiological lens through which he views his material discussed. Points from his linguistic analysis (including revivalist reconstructions) are then examined and, prompted by Frost’s portrayal of the state of Cornish-language literacy in the last quarter of the sixteenth century, similarities are adduced with the known situation of near-contemporary Manx Gaelic. Traditional Cornish went into ultimately terminal decline, but Manx went on to receive both the Prayer Book and the Bible in translation; Cornwall’s disadvantage in not constituting a diocese in its own right is suggested as a significant factor in the contrasting fates of the two small Celtic languages in question. Finally, attention is drawn to the potentially striking efficacy of small networks of dedicated scholars, whatever their time and place.

Behold, the Global Translated Bible(s)! Research and Pedagogical Implications

Abstract Mother Earth is home to an unprecedented number of translations of the Bible, making it the most widely translated book in the world. The pages of this book have traversed a variety of physical and metaphorical borders, navigating diverse geographical, political, economic, cultural, linguistic, and religious intersections. Across space, time, and cultures, millions of readers have found various reasons to read it through diverse lenses. The Bible was frequently translated and brought to the colonized territories with colonial movements. Regrettably, it was often utilized as a tool for subjugation and dominance. However, the colonized people also used this resource for their own goals. Do contemporary biblical studies have the courage to look upon the tomes and tons of translated Bibles lying upon the surface of Mother Earth? What responsibilities and opportunities does the Global Translated Bible(s) lay upon academic biblical studies? What research questions, challenges, and opportunities for collaboration does it open? What are the pedagogical obligations and implications of acknowledging the Global Translated Bible(s)? In other words, what does faithfulness and unfaithfulness to the translated biblical corpus entail, imply, and demand? This lecture proposes and emphasizes the imperative of mainstreaming the Global Translated Bible(s) into academic biblical studies.

An aligned corpus of Spanish bibles

AbstractWe present a comprehensive and valuable resource in the form of an aligned parallel corpus comprising translations of the Bible in Spanish. Our collection encompasses a total of eleven Bibles, originating from diverse centuries (XVI, XIX, XX), various religious denominations (Protestant, Catholic), and geographical regions (Spain, Latin America). The process of aligning the verses across these translations has been meticulously carried out, ensuring that the content is organized in a coherent manner. As a result, this corpus serves as a useful convenient resource for various linguistic analyses, including paraphrase detection, semantic clustering, and the exploration of biases present within the texts. To illustrate the utility of this resource, we provide several examples that demonstrate how it can be effectively employed in these applications.

Beyond a Confessional Paradigm? Richard Simon and the Vernacular Bible

This article presents a new account of Richard Simon's work as a biblical translator. Having first contextualised Simon's views on the vernacular Bible in the contested world of late seventeenth-century French Catholic biblical translation, it then examines how they were engaged with and disputed by contemporaries (in particular, Antoine Arnauld). It contends that Simon's novelty did not consist in applying history and philology to the Bible in order to reach a confessionally neutral version, but rather in reconceptualising the relationship between multiple legitimate biblical translations to craft a new form of Catholic vernacular Bible.

Reduplication in old Armenian and its functional implementations (experience of comparative diachronic analysis)

The reduplication in the Indo-European languages has been studied quite thoroughly both in connection with the issues of the origin and development of the language, and with the issues of assessing their functional content. Regarding the latter, scientists are more inclined to believe that this is due to the reproduction of child’s or imperfect speech. The article examines the reduplicates in the Armenian language, which is central to the territory of settlement of the Indo-Europeans. Using the example of the translation of the Bible, the authors show that only in Armenian the reduplicates had a stylistic significance, fixed a high style. This conclusion is drawn on the basis of the fact that the synonyms of reduplicates in Armenian in the era of the Bible translation (V century AD) were used in folklore and historical works, that is, the translator used the reduplicates consciously, emphasizing the high importance of the Holy Scriptures. This is also indicated by comparisons of Armenian examples with reduplicates with corresponding examples from the original source and translations of the Bible into Latin, English, Old Bulgarian and German. This testifies to the fact that by the V century AD the Armenian language was not only finally formed, but also contained style awareness.

The authority of God takes precedence over Scripture and tradition

The divinely derived authority of the Bible to teach and guide, is somewhat mixed with the authority of traditions to interpret Scripture and document such interpretations outside Scripture. Tradition-based Bible translations pose a threat of elevating the authority of tradition over that of Scripture. All concerned traditions should not occupy or tame the authority of Scripture by producing Bibles attuned to tradition. The Scriptures were inspired by the Holy Spirit who inspires Bible readers to understand them. Tradition should not shape or formulate Scripture in accordance with its interpretive convictions. The Bible translations, produced under the auspices of specific traditions, should be exposed to guard the authority of Scripture not to be subdued by any tradition. The endless production of Bible translations has been considered to determine what could necessitate them. Among other findings, traditions have been found to be active in producing Bible translations, when their purview should be doing biblical interpretations and publish them within their traditions, and not to release them to the public as alternative Bibles or versions. The authority of God through the Holy Spirit, who inspired the prophets and apostles to write Scripture, is not transferable to any tradition. Regardless of the proliferation of tradition-based Bible translations, the authority to guide and teach believers, remains with God and the outlook of believers should be based on the supreme authority of God. The principle of Sola Scriptura is somewhat unsafe in the light of the production of tradition-orient Bible versions. The inspiration of the Bible by the Holy Spirit predates canonisation, redaction and restructuring of Scriptures. The production and publication of tradition-based Bibles with synthetic translation rules, poses a threat of diluting Scripture to align with specific traditions. Tradition is fallible and cannot be as authoritative as God. All authority to teach and guide continues to rest with the infallible God.Contribution: Continuous Reformation could regress to the outgrown pre-Reformation teachings that were subject to the authority of tradition, if the proliferation of tradition-based Bible translations is not noticed with a threat that they pose on the divinely derived authority of the Scriptures to teach and guide believing people. The gains of Reformers and Reformation should be guarded by being aware of Bible translation trends.

We need world-wide corpus-based typology: A parallel corpus study of restrictives ('only')

Language is a tool for communication in concrete use and there are several thousand languages; hence, approaches that are both corpus-linguistically and typologically informed must play an important role in linguistics. This is demonstrated in an investigation of the generally expressed meaning (GEM) 'only', considered here in translations of the New Testament. It is shown that restrictives are universal (are attested in all 121 languages of a stratified sample from 121 language families and isolates), that the generally expressed meaning (GEM) 'only' differs considerably from the parochially expressed meaning (PEM) of English only, that restriction plays an important role in discourse and that the use of restrictives exhibits hemispheric differences with the Pacific and the Afro-Eurasian linguistic hemispheres reflecting partly different usage patterns. It is argued that these differences are deeply rooted in discourse (parole) rather than grammar and lexicon (langue) and are so common in discourse that they percolate to written Bible translations.

Unsung Heroes of Mission Bible Translation in Colonial West Africa: Ludwig Adzaklo of the Bremen Mission in German Togoland

The Africanisation of Christianity in Africa is closely linked to the availability of the Bible in African mother tongues. However, mission-led Bible translation in Africa in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was not solely the work of European missionary linguists. Africans, such as Ludwig Adzaklo of the Bremen Mission, played essential roles in this process. Nevertheless, African translators like him were considered as mere Sprachgehilfe (language assistants) to the missionaries and not as co-translators. After a postcolonial analysis of archival data on the translation of the Old Testament into Ewe by Ludwig Adzaklo and Jakob Spieth, this study argues that Adzaklo was not just Spieth’s Sprachgehilfe but a co-translator on the project. Being referred to as Spieth’s Sprachgehilfe was a colonial-missionary label that denied Adzaklo’s agency in mission-led Bible translation in Africa. Therefore, the study suggests that Adzaklo should be viewed as an early Ewe mother-tongue Bible translator in the history of West African Christianity.

The Interactive Verbal Network of Early Modern Theatre

Abstract To enrich characterisation and bond with audiences, Jacobethan playwrights included Classical tags, Bible verses and vernacular quotations in their work. Borrowings from other plays were particularly effective: a line of dialogue could ‘go viral’ straight from the stage. This verbal network, linking hundreds of early modern plays by one-liners, names and catchphrases, can now be investigated through the WordWeb-IDEM database, which contains over ten thousand text extracts that quote each other. The part of John Marston in this dramatic intertextuality is as yet under-researched. He saturated his writing with others’ words extensively and idiosyncratically; tracing these overlaps with Marston's unwitting ‘collaborators’ richly illustrates the research potential offered by the WordWeb-IDEM corpus and its search options.

THE CONCEPT OF PROPITIATION IN OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE DEATH OF CHRIST

The English word “propitiation” (Greek hilastērion) is not in common theological use today. Modern theology has generally become uneasy with it. The aversion to it is because the idea is associated with the sense of appeasing an angry deity brought in from pagan use and practice. This has resulted in the removal of the traditional translation “propitiation” with many modern English Bible translations preferring “expiation,” or “atoning sacrifice,” or some other general phrase. Thus, for example, while the New King James Version of Romans 3:25 is translated, “whom God set forth as a propitiation,” and the English Standard Version, “whom God put forward as a propitiation,” other modern translations are different. The New International Version is rather, “sacrifice of atonement;” Revised Standard Version has “an expiation by his blood;” Common English Bible, “place of sacrifice;” The Bible in Basic English, “the sign of his mercy.” This article insists that we must not just reject the use of the word propitiation simply because it was wrongly understood in pagan quarters. It conveys something vital when we come to consider what God has done for us in Christ. Until recently, many understood by this word that the death of Christ has effected the removal of the wrath of God and made us the recipients of his mercy. The cross brought satisfaction to violated justice.

On the emergence of argument encoding in causatives constructions in Romance

Causative constructions in Romance show complex variation regarding the case of the subject of the non-finite clause (causee) and to its position with respect to the main causative verb and the embedded non-finite verb. It has been argued that the variation reflects the diachronic evolution of the causative construction in Romance and also documents an ongoing process of further development. We present original empirical data from a comparative corpus of Bible translations that provide new insights into diachronic evolution as well as to the synchronic variation. Our comparative approach allows us to generalize over additional semantic and pragmatic parameters for the choice of a particular construction. Our data support the assumption of the extension of ECM from clitic to nominal causee constructions in French, but they do not support this for Italian. For Spanish we see some ECM constructions in the most recent translation only.