Antisolvent Method Research Articles

Flash Infrared Annealing for Perovskite Solar Cell Processing

Organic–inorganic perovskites have an impressive potential for the design of next generation solar cells and are currently considered for upscaling and commercialization. Currently, perovskite solar cells rely on spin-coating which is neither practical for large areas nor environmentally friendly. Indeed, one of the conventional and most effective lab-scale methods to induce perovskite crystallization, the antisolvent method, requires an amount of toxic solvent that is difficult to apply on larger surfaces. To solve this problem, an antisolvent-free and rapid thermal annealing process called flash infrared annealing (FIRA) can be used to produce highly crystalline perovskite films. The FIRA oven is composed of an array of near-infrared halogen lamps with an illumination power of 3,000 kW/m2. A hollow aluminum body enables an effective water-cooling system. The FIRA method allows the synthesis of perovskite films in less than 2 s, achieving efficiencies >20%. FIRA has a unique potential for the industry because it can be adapted to continuous processing, is antisolvent-free, and does not require lengthy, hour-long annealing steps.

Flash Infrared Annealing for Perovskite Solar Cell Processing.

Organic-inorganic perovskites have an impressive potential for the design of next generation solar cells and are currently considered for upscaling and commercialization. Currently, perovskite solar cells rely on spin-coating which is neither practical for large areas nor environmentally friendly. Indeed, one of the conventional and most effective lab-scale methods to induce perovskite crystallization, the antisolvent method, requires an amount of toxic solvent that is difficult to apply on larger surfaces. To solve this problem, an antisolvent-free and rapid thermal annealing process called flash infrared annealing (FIRA) can be used to produce highly crystalline perovskite films. The FIRA oven is composed of an array of near-infrared halogen lamps with an illumination power of 3,000 kW/m2. A hollow aluminum body enables an effective water-cooling system. The FIRA method allows the synthesis of perovskite films in less than 2 s, achieving efficiencies >20%. FIRA has a unique potential for the industry because it can be adapted to continuous processing, is antisolvent-free, and does not require lengthy, hour-long annealing steps.

Implementing Dopant-Free Hole-Transporting Layers and Metal-Incorporated CsPbI2Br for Stable All-Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cells.

Mixed-halide CsPbI2Br perovskite is promising for efficient and thermally stable all-inorganic solar cells; however, the use of conventional antisolvent methods and additives-based hole-transporting layers (HTLs) currently hampers progress. Here, we have employed hot-air-assisted perovskite deposition in ambient condition to obtain high-quality photoactive CsPbI2Br perovskite films and have extended stable device operation using metal cation doping and dopant-free hole-transporting materials. Density functional theory calculations are used to study the structural and optoelectronic properties of the CsPbI2Br perovskite when it is doped with metal cations Eu2+ and In3+. We experimentally incorporated Eu2+ and In3+ metal ions into CsPbI2Br films and applied dopant-free copper(I) thiocyanate (CuSCN) and poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)-based materials as low-cost hole transporting layers, leading to record-high power conversion efficiencies of 15.27% and 15.69%, respectively, and a retention of >95% of the initial efficiency over 1600 h at 85 °C thermal stress.

Drastic Change of Surface Morphology of Cesium–Formamidinium Perovskite Solar Cells by Antisolvent Processing

Antisolvent method is one of the most common and efficient techniques used to prepare high-quality lead-halide perovskite film for perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Antisolvent method is crucial for improving the poor morphology of specific perovskite compositions, such as methylammonium (MA)-free perovskite, a promising PSC absorber that offers greater thermal stability. Here, we report the superior performance of di-iso-propyl ether (DIE) as an antisolvent for the fabrication of MA-free formamidinium (FA)-Cs perovskites. Conventionally used antisolvent, chlorobenzene (CB), often causes uneven morphology of FA-Cs perovskites due to the formation of millimeter-length walls that extend up to 2 μm in height, which penetrate the hole transport layer and make contact with the gold electrode. Scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction measurements of as-prepared and thermal-annealed CB-treated films indicate that the walls appear during the antisolvent dripping process due to the strong solvent extraction property of the CB. CB-treated and DIE-treated, (FAPbI3)0.85(CsPbBr3)0.15-based, PSCs were fabricated by means of DIE and CB treatment. The DIE-treated cells yielded efficiency up to 18%, improvement on CB-treated cells due to increased fill factor (FF). These cells showed a longer shelf life than CB-treated cells under ambient storage conditions.

Anthocyanin-β-lactoglobulin nanoparticles in acidic media: synthesis, characterization and interaction study

This study aims to investigate the preparation, characterization, interaction binding, and application of β-Lactoglobulin (β-Lg) based nanoparticles for encapsulation of anthocyanins (AC) extracted from red raspberry pomace, systematically. We used anti-solvent method that is common for nano particle preparation of water-soluble proteins. Nanoparticles were fabricated by dissolving β-Lg in an alkaline base at pH 7 and heat treatment 85 °C with the aid of anti-solvent process using N-(3 dimethylaminopropyl)-N-ethyl carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) as a cross-linking, then AC was loaded on β-Lg nanoparticles using citrate buffer pH 3. The results showed that the mean particle size of β-Lg and AC-β-Lg ranged from 199 to 172 nm with a semi-spherical morphology revealed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Interaction results showed that AC (1, 2, 4, 6 and 8 × 10−4 M) quenched the fluorescence intensity of β-Lg by 97%, and binding occurred with a Ka value of 9.39 × 102 M−1 at 298 K via electrostatic forces. The β-Lg nanoparticles enhanced the bioavailability of AC was 22 %, which is higher than unencapsulated AC. Furthermore, the AC-loaded β-Lg nanoparticles were more stable in mouth (pH 6.8), simulated gastric (SG, pH 2), and simulated intestinal (SI, pH 6.9) by showing high retention rate (%) than free AC extract. These results may contribute to a better understanding of the improvement of AC bioavailability using β-Lg-nanoparticles.

Research progress in the preparation of pharmaceutical formulations based on supercritical fluid technology

<p indent="0mm">Supercritical fluid is a fluid whose temperature and pressure are both higher than its critical value (<italic>P</italic>_c and <italic>T</italic>_c). At the critical point, the physical and chemical properties of the fluid are very sensitive to slight changes in temperature or pressure. At present, supercritical fluid is widely used in various fields of healthcare, from which supercritical extraction technology, supercritical fluid microparticle technology, chemical reaction in supercritical fluid and so on are derived. CO₂ is the most widely used supercritical fluid due to its low price, stable chemical properties and mild operating conditions. The critical pressure<italic> P</italic>_c of CO₂ is <sc>7.37 MPa,</sc> which has low requirements for equipment conditions. The critical temperature <italic>T</italic>_c is <sc>304.2 K,</sc> which can realize supercritical fluid operation at room temperature and save energy. This paper reviews the application of supercritical fluid technology in the preparation of pharmaceutical formulations, focusing on the problems of pharmaceutical research and clinical translation. Compared with the traditional pharmaceutical methods, the preparation of pharmaceutical formulations by supercritical fluid technology has the inherent characteristics of high biological activity, high purity, less impurities, green and safe, environmentally friendly. It is a promising new process in the pharmaceutical industry and also attracts the interest of scientific researchers. This review also summarizes the latest research achievements in the preparation of pharmaceutical nanoparticles, nano-drug carriers, nano-enzymes and super-stable pharmaceutical compounds based on supercritical fluid technology, introduces its basic principles and advantages, and looks forward to the development prospect of supercritical fluid technology in the field of nano-medicine. The main challenges in the field of pharmaceuticals are low solubility and poor stability <italic>in vivo</italic>. In order to solve these problems, supercritical technology is used to prepare nano-drugs, such as gambogic acid particles and curcumin particles, featuring improved solubility and bioavailability. Reducing drug particles to the nanoscale can increase the surface area of pure drug particles, thus increasing their solubility and bioavailability of active substances. In addition, small-scale drug delivery systems could be prepared by using supercritical fluid antisolvent method, which effectively improved the stability and solubility of active drugs and basically produced no organic solvent residue. More recently, a new superstable homogeneous iodinated formulation technology (SHIFT) was proposed and developed to improve the stability of drugs in lipiodol for lipiodol-based transcatheter arterial embolization (TAE) in hepatocellular carcinoma interventional therapy. By controlling temperature and pressure to make CO₂ in a supercritical state, the lipiodol and indocyanine green (ICG) were mixed to obtain a uniformly stable medicine-iodized formulation. It was found that the lipiodol-ICG formulation had long-term fluorescence stability, improved the optical performance of ICG, and retained the embolization performance of lipiodol-ICG. With the application of SHIFT, embolization preparations and small-molecule drugs are combined to achieve better tumor treatment efficiency than single therapy. As a green, efficient and widely applicable technology platform, SHIFT is expected to combine various commonly used fluorescent drugs, chemotherapy drugs and radionuclide drugs with embolization agents, thus playing a greater application value in the future clinical anticancer treatment. In summary, supercritical fluid technology is in line with the principle of green chemistry, which overcomes the problems of toxic organic solvents and high energy in the traditional technology, and has shown great potential and advantages in the field of medicine. Despite the growing success of supercritical fluid technology, there are still some challenges in the preparation process, such as the lack of reliable experimental data and models, and the large-scale application in the pharmaceutical industry. With the increasing emphasis on personalized medicine, this green technology will continue to develop, and it is expected to achieve large-scale use from laboratory scale to industrialization in the future.

A Lab-to-Fab Study toward Roll-to-Roll Fabrication of Reproducible Perovskite Solar Cells under Ambient Room Conditions

The low power-conversion efficiency (PCE) and reproducibility reported to date for roll-to-roll (R2R)-fabricated perovskite solar cells (PSCs) results from difficulty in controlling perovskite film quality. Here, we present a systematic comparison of the hot-deposition method, which induces crystal-growth-driven (CGD) film formation, and the anti-solvent method, which induces nucleation-driven (ND) film formation, for one-step perovskite film formation. Perovskite films produced by the two methods show markedly different micro-structural and optoelectronic properties; however, PCEs of CGD-type PSCs are only marginally lower than those of ND-type PSCs. Importantly, the average performance of PSCs incorporating a CGD-type perovskite layer is independent of humidity during fabrication and displays improved stability and reproducibility, prompting further investigation of upscaling potential. R2R-produced PSCs on plastic substrate with four slot-die-coated functional layers show superior reproducibility and micro-structural, optoelectronic, and photovoltaic properties comparable with those of glass-based PSCs, indicating excellent promise for translation to a manufacturing process. Lab-to-fab study of perovskite film formation methods toward industrial production Crystal-growth-driven (CGD) versus nucleation-driven (ND) processes are compared CGD film quality is substrate independent and significantly more stable than ND films Roll-to-roll CGD perovskite solar cells show excellent efficiency and reproducibility What is the best perovskite film formation route for industrial manufacturing of perovskite solar cells (PSCs)? Angmo et al. classify perovskite film formation as crystal-growth driven or nucleation driven and study their upscaling compatibility, considering process scalability, film quality, device efficiency, and stability. They demonstrate roll-to-roll PSCs with excellent performance and reproducibility.

Confining lead-free perovskite quantum dots in metal–organic frameworks for visible light-driven proton reduction

Lead-free perovskite quantum dots are introduced into metal–organic framework photocatalysts through an anti-solvent recrystallization method for high photocatalytic performance under visible light.

Vapor incubation of FASnI3 films for efficient and stable lead-free inverted perovskite solar cells

A novel anti-solvent vapor-assisted incubation method was developed to manipulate both the nucleation and crystal growth processes of perovskite for producing high-quality FASnI3 films.

Effects of Polyvinyl Alcohol on Drug Release from Nanocomposite Particles Using Poly (L-lactide-co-glycolide).

The effects of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) on the release behavior of polymer nanoparticles from nanocomposite particles using amino acids were investigated. Rifaximin (RFX) was used as a hydrophobic drug model. RFX-loaded poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLLGA) nanoparticles were prepared using an antisolvent diffusion method. They were then spray-dried with equal amounts of amino acids to prepare the nanocomposite particles. The mean diameters of nanocomposite particles were 2.86-5.42 μm. The particle size increased as the concentration of PVA aqueous solution increased. The mean diameters of RFX-loaded PLLGA nanoparticles were 150-160 nm; however, the particle size distributions of those prepared using 0.25% (w/v) PVA aqueous solution differed significantly immediately after preparation and after redispersion from nanocomposite particles. The release test results of nanocomposite particles revealed that those prepared using 0.25% and 0.50% (w/v) aqueous PVA solutions rapidly released RFX. In contrast, particles prepared using 2.00 and 4.00% (w/v) PVA aqueous solution showed sustained drug release. The results of drug release tests of nanoparticles redispersed from nanocomposite particles showed that the nanoparticles prepared using 0.50% and 2.00% (w/v) PVA aqueous solution suppressed the initial burst. Therefore, we considered that the results of the drug release behavior of the nanoparticles in these particles reflectsreflect the release behavior of the nanoparticles from the nanocomposite particles. These results indicate that the rate of redispersion from nanocomposite particles to nanoparticles can be controlled by changing the concentration of PVA aqueous solution.

Micronization of Curcuma xanthorrhiza Extract with Addition of PVP Using Supercritical CO2 as Anti-solvent

Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb, known as Temulawak or Javanese ginger, is a plant species. Its rhizomes are used as a medicinal herb. It contains curcumin as an active compound and ethereal oils mainly consisted of sesquiterpenes. In this work, Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb ethanolic extract was micronized with an addition of PVP using supercritical antisolvent (SAS) method. The ethanolic extract was obtained from dried Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb using soxhletation. For the micronization, the extracted compound solvent was a mixture of acetone and ethanol (90:10 (v/v)), while the supercritical CO2 was used as an antisolvent. The effect of operating conditions on the particle size and morphology was evaluated. Through this method, spherical Curcuma xanthorrhiza/PVP particles with mean diameter ranging from 191 ± 70 nm to 178 ± 57 nm were successfully formed. The particle size not significantly decreased as the pressure increased from 8 12 MPa. The addition of PVP is very effective to reduce the particle size, increase the solubility, and enhance the bioavailability of Curcuma xanthorrhiza extract. This work has the potential to improve the use of Curcuma xanthorrhiza in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications.

Study on Enhanced Extraction and Seasonal Variation of Secondary Metabolites in &lt;i&gt;Eucommia Ulmoides&lt;/i&gt; Leaves Using Deep Eutectic Solvents

It has been considered as a crucial field for the extraction of active ingredients from herbal medicine to use a green and efficient method in the medicinal and food industries. In this study, a deep eutectic solvent (DES) coupled with microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) was used to extract ten compounds from Eucommia ulmoides leaves. Response surface methodology (RSM) combined with Box-Behnken design (BBD) was used to optimize the extraction conditions using the MAE method. An anti-solvent method efficiently recovered target analytes from the DES. By combining the DES-based MAE and quantitative analysis of multi-components by single mark (QAMS) methods, the contents of ten compounds in the leaves of Eucommia ulmoides were determined to clarify the relationship between the accumulation of secondary metabolites and the harvest period. This study provides a novel strategy for the harvesting, processing, and quality control of the raw materials from Eucommia ulmoides leaves.

Room temperature synthesis and characterization of novel lead-free double perovskite nanocrystals with a stable and broadband emission

We demonstrated the synthesis of ultra small and stable Cs3BiBr6 nanocrystals, ∼1.5–3 nm, via a room-temperature antisolvent method. Red-shift of bandgap was observed in low temperature PL measurements with an activation energy of ∼41 meV.

Modified Antisolvent Method for Improving the Performance and Stability of Triple-Cation Perovskite Solar Cells.

Antisolvent crystallization is known as an effective approach for the deposition of pinhole-free solution-processed perovskite layers for high-performance solar cells. Here, we introduce a modified antisolvent dripping method by adding tetra ethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) into chlorobenzene as a conventional antisolvent. Through TEOS modification, perovskite solar cells show efficiencies as high as 16% with more than 85% retention after 290 h storage at ambient conditions in comparison to 20% in pristine cells. This significant enhancement in efficiency and stability mainly related to the decrement of the density of surface defects, which is confirmed by considerably enhanced photoluminescence of perovskite layers. Also, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy results show lower charge recombination at interfaces in modified cells. Regarding the obtained results, our modified antisolvent approach is a simple and promising route to prepare high-quality perovskite layers for solar cell applications.

Size-Controlled Synthesis of CuO Nanoparticles by the Supercritical Antisolvent Method in SBA-15

Herein, we describe a facile method to control the size and dispersion of CuO nanoparticles (NPs) in SBA-15 by the supercritical antisolvent (SAS) method during the depressurization process of supercritical fluid deposition (SCFD), describing the mass transfer between supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) and a cosolvent. On reducing the concentration of the cupric nitrate precursor, the size of CuO NPs was decreased from 3.5 ± 1.0 to 1.0 ± 0.4 nm (Cu loading 14.2–12.1 wt %) under the depressurized rate of ∼20 MPa/min. Based on the size distribution and nucleation theory, the nucleation rate of the precursor could reach 1025 cm–3·s–1, and the calculated interface energy of cupric nitrate was less than 0.1 J/m2, indicating that scCO2 as an antisolvent caused the heterogeneous nucleation of the precursor on the surface of SBA-15 channels. Hence, the nucleation rate and growth of cupric nitrate were regulated under a given scCO2 depressurized rate, and then the CuO NPs’ size distribution and Cu loading were controlled subsequent to calcination.

Fabrication and characterization of Pickering emulsion gels stabilized by zein/pullulan complex colloidal particles.

Zein particles are unsuitable as stabilizers of Pickering emulsions because of their high hydrophobicity. However, few studies have reported on the use of a strong hydrophilic neutral polysaccharide to regulate its wettability. In this work, zein/pullulan complex particles (ZPPs) were formulated by an anti-solvent method to fabricate Pickering emulsions. The presence of pullulan increased the size, decreased the zeta, and provided excellent resistance to the gravitational separation of zein. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that the shape of zein particles changed from spherical as they became aggregated ZPP nanoparticles. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy indicated that the flocculation phenomenon of ZPPs was related to the hydrogen bond between zein and pullulan. Moreover, the hydrophobicity of zein was modified by hydrophilic pullulan to endow the ZPPs with nearly neutral wettability when the mass ratio was 15:1, allowing for the preparation of stable Pickering emulsions. In contrast to zein, the ZPPs contributed to building a compact interface layer around the droplets and smaller emulsion droplets. Under a certain ZPP concentration, the size and viscosity of emulsion increased with an increase in the oil volume fraction, indicating that the Pickering emulsions stabilized by ZPPs showed better stability against coalescence. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) revealed that the ZPPs constructed a dense filling layer on the surface of oil droplets, thus further emphasizing that ZPPs can potentially be used in fabricating Pickering emulsion gels. Zein/pullulan complex particles are an excellent Pickering emulsion gel stabilizer that can be used in the delivery system of bioactive substances in food formulations. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Induction of Caspase-Mediated Apoptosis in HepG2 Liver Carcinoma Cells Using Mutagen-Antioxidant Conjugated Self-Assembled Novel Carbazole Nanoparticles and In Silico Modeling Studies.

In this study, novel self-assembled carbazole-thiooctanoic acid nanoparticles (CTNs) were synthesized from amino carbazole (a mutagen) and thiooctanoic acid (an antioxidant). The nanoparticles were characterized using hyperspectral techniques. Then, the antiproliferative potential of CTNs was determined in HepG2 liver carcinoma cells. This study employed a solvent–antisolvent interaction method to synthesize a spherical CTN of size less than 50 nm. Moreover, CT was subsequently capped to gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) in the additional comparative studies. The CT derivative was synthesized from carbazole and lipoic acid by the amide bond formation reaction using a coupling agent. Furthermore, it was characterized using infrared (IR), 1H nuclear magnetic resonance, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and transmission electron microscopy techniques. The CT-capped gold nanoparticles (CTAuNPs) were prepared from CT, chloroauric acid, and NaBH4. The CTAuNPs were characterized using ultraviolet–visible, high-resolution TEM, DLS, and Fourier transform IR techniques. The cytotoxicity and apoptosis-inducing ability of both nanoparticles were determined in HepG2 cells. The results demonstrate that CTNs exhibit antiproliferative activity in the cancerous HepG2 cells. Moreover, molecular docking and molecular dynamics studies were conducted to explore the therapeutic potential of CT against human EGFR suppressor protein to gain more insights into the binding mode of the CT, which may show a significant role in anticancer therapy.

Generation and physicochemical characterization of posaconazole cocrystals using Gas Antisolvent (GAS) and Supercritical Solvent (CSS) methods

Posaconazole (PSZ) is a BCS (biopharmaceutical classification system) Class II anti-fungal drug used to treat infections in immunocompromised patients. The work presented herein describes the generation of cocrystals of PSZ with 4-aminobenzoic acid (4AMB) using supercritical CO2 as an antisolvent in GAS (Gas Antisolvent) with acetonitrile, and as a solvent in CSS (Cocrystallization with Supercritical Solvent) methods. Cocrystals of PSZ-4AMB were obtained in a 2:3 stoichiometric ratio for the first time by GAS and CSS methods, with GAS producing higher-purity samples compared to CSS method. The work presented herein investigates the influence of critical processing variables using CO2 solvent and antisolvent crystallization methods with respect to the formation of cocrystals of PSZ-4AMB. A Design of Experiments (DoE) approach was performed to assess the outcome of PSZ-4AMB formation, impacted by processing variables such as pressure, temperature, and stirring rate using GAS and CSS methods. The resulting cocrystalline phase was identified using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD). The particle morphologies and size distributions were determined using scanning electron microscopy and automated static imaging, respectively.

Fabrication of GO/NH4NO3 composite films by vacuum filtration as laser converter for enhanced photothermal performance

Graphene-based materials have been extensively investigated as light converters for photothermal therapy, energy harvesting, and laser ignition owing to their good light absorption and high thermal conductivity. Further, the energy output of pure graphene materials as laser converters is relatively low. In this paper, we reported the introduction of ammonium nitrate (AN) into graphene oxide (GO) for the preparation of free-standing, graphene-based membranes using anti-solvent method and vacuum filtration. They showed good light absorption and energy output, leading to excellent photothermal performance owing to the synergistic reaction between GO and AN. The existence of AN was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analyses. The influence of GO and NH4NO3 on the photothermal performance of the composite membranes was entirely investigated by ultraviolet, thermal gravimetric analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry analyses. The heat release and the maximum heat release rate of the G20N5 film were 1030 ​J·g−1 and 8.9 ​J·g−1s−1, respectively, which were much higher than those of the pure GO. The flame produced by the laser irradiation was captured by a high-speed camera. The prepared G20N5 film showed the best performance among all the samples. Compared with pure GO (approximately 300 ​°C at 0.7 ​W), the temperature of the G20N5 composite film was dramatically increased (approximately 450 ​°C at 0.7 ​W) under the same power of the pulse laser irradiation, which is important for the potential application of optical ignition with low initiating energy.

Ultrathin polymeric films for interfacial passivation in wide band-gap perovskite solar cells

Wide band-gap perovskite solar cells have the potential for a relatively high output voltage and resilience in a degradation-inducing environment. Investigating the reasons why high voltages with adequate output power have not been realized yet is an underexplored part in perovskite research although it is of paramount interest for multijunction solar cells. One reason is interfacial carrier recombination that leads to reduced carrier lifetimes and voltage loss. To further improve the Voc of methylammonium lead tri-bromide (MAPbBr3), that has a band-gap of 2.3 eV, interface passivation technique is an important strategy. Here we demonstrate two ultrathin passivation layers consisting of PCBM and PMMA, that can effectively passivate defects at the TiO2/perovskite and perovskite/spiro-OMeTAD interfaces, respectively. In addition, perovskite crystallization was investigated with the established anti-solvent method and the novel flash infrared annealing (FIRA) with and without passivation layers. These modifications significantly suppress interfacial recombination providing a pathway for improved VOC’s from 1.27 to 1.41 V using anti solvent and from 1.12 to 1.36 V using FIRA. Furthermore, we obtained more stable devices through passivation after 140 h where the device retained 70% of the initial performance value.