Wind Effects Research Articles

Mechanism of Electropulsing Treatment Technology for Flow Stress of Metal Material: A Review

Residual stress is caused by non–uniform deformation caused by non–uniform force, heat and composition, which is of great significance in engineering applications. It is assumed that the residual stress is always the upper limit of the elastic limit, so the reduction of the flow stress will reduce the residual elastic stress. It is particularly important to control the flow stress in metal materials. Compared with traditional methods, the use of electropulsing treatment (EPT) technology stands out due to its energy–efficient, highly effective, straightforward and pollution–free characteristics. However, there are different opinions about the mechanism of reducing flow stress through EPT due to the conflation of the effects from pulsed currents. Herein, a clear correlation is identified between induced stress levels and the application of pulsed electrical current. It was found that the decrease in flow stress is positively correlated with the current density and the duration of electrical contact and current action time. We first systematically and comprehensively summarize the influence mechanisms of EPT on dislocations, phase, textures and recrystallization. An analysis of Joule heating, electron wind effect, and thermal–induced stress within metal frameworks under the influence of pulsed currents was conducted. And the distribution of electric, thermal and stress fields under EPT are discussed in detail based on a finite element simulation (FES). Finally, some new insights into the issues and challenges of flow stress drops caused by EPT are proposed, which is critically important for advancing related mechanism research and the revision of theories and models.

Experimental Study on the Effect of Wind on Armor Stone Stability

Wind is a significant factor influencing the stability of breakwater armor stones. However, few existing studies have considered the effects of wind on these structures. In this study, two-dimensional laboratory experiments were conducted to examine the effect of wind on the stability of breakwater armor stones. The stability factor (KD) of the armor stone, fluid velocity, runup, and rundown were observed under the action of waves and winds. A wind turbine was installed in front of the physical model of the breakwater to generate extreme wind conditions of 5.5 and 12 m/s. The results showed that KD decreased by 42.18% at 5.5 m/s and 57.82% at 12 m/s compared with that without wind. The maximum runup and rundown heights increased with wind velocity, following a Rayleigh distribution. The fluid velocity distribution conformed to a normal distribution, with the mean velocity directed offshore. Many studies have suggested that runup, rundown, and fluid velocity are the main factors affecting the stability of breakwater armor stones. The analysis revealed that wind affects these factors and lowers the stability coefficient. These wind-induced hydrodynamic changes suggest the need for a detailed hydrodynamic review of wind-wave conditions.

Identifying Damage in Structures: Definition of Thresholds to Minimize False Alarms in SHM Systems

In recent years, the development of quick and streamlined methods for the detection and localization of structural damage has been achieved by analysing key dynamic parameters before and after significant events or as a result of aging. Many Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) systems rely on the relationship between occurred damage and variations in eigenfrequencies. While it is acknowledged that damage can affect eigenfrequencies, the reverse is not necessarily true, particularly for minor frequency variations. Thus, reducing false positives is essential for the effectiveness of SHM systems. The aim of this paper is to identify scenarios where observed changes in eigenfrequencies are not caused by structural damage, but rather by non-stationary combinations of input and system response (e.g., wind effects, traffic vibrations), or by stochastic variations in mass, damping, and stiffness (e.g., environmental variations). To achieve this, statistical variations of thresholds were established to separate linear non-stationary behaviour from nonlinear structural behaviour. The Duffing oscillator was employed in this study to perform various nonlinear analyses via Monte Carlo simulations.

Comparison of ANN and SVR based models in sea level prediction for the Black Sea coast of Sinop

Seawater level oscillations are very critical to coastal construction, flood prevention and human living conditions. However, it is difficult to accurately project the daily future for seawater level due to the effects of wind, precipitation and other atmospheric conditions. For this reason, in this paper, artificial intelligence (AI) based Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) and Support Vector Regression (SVR) methods are applied for the estimation of seawater level in Sinop Coast. In addition, Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) is used as a benchmarking model. In this study, coefficient of determination (R2) and root mean square error (RMSE) were applied as model evaluation criteria. Besides, 15 minutes (approximately 22 months) sea water level data of Sinop Station were collected and used as is. The findings revealed that the ANN model can predict the water level for 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th days with correlation coefficients (R2) of 0.84, 0.67, 0.64, 0.63, respectively, and the SVR model can predict for 1st, 2nd days with correlation coefficients (R2) of 0.86, 0.66, respectively.

Fuel consumption estimation for jet aircraft: a mathematical model development

PurposeReducing aircraft fuel consumption has become a paramount research area, focusing on optimizing operational parameters like speed and altitude during the cruise phase. However, the existing methods for fuel reduction often rely on complex experimental calculations and data extraction from embedded systems, making practical implementation challenging. To address this, this study aims to devise a simple and accessible approach using available information.Design/methodology/approachIn this paper, a novel analytic method to estimate and optimize fuel consumption for aircraft equipped with jet engines is proposed, with a particular emphasis on speed and altitude parameters. The dynamic variations in weight caused by fuel consumption during flight are also accounted for. The derived fuel consumption equation was rigorously validated by applying it to the Boeing 737–700 and comparing the results against the fuel consumption reference tables provided in the Boeing manual. Remarkably, the equation yielded closely aligned outcomes across various altitudes studied. In the second part of this paper, a pioneering approach is introduced by leveraging the particle swarm optimization algorithm (PSO). This novel application of PSO allows us to explore the equation’s potential in finding the optimal altitude and speed for an actual flight from Algiers to Brussels.FindingsThe results demonstrate that using the main findings of this study, including the innovative equation and the application of PSO, significantly simplifies and expedites the process of determining the ideal parameters, showcasing the practical applicability of the approach.Research limitations/implicationsThe suggested methodology stands out for its simplicity and practicality, particularly when compared to alternative approaches, owing to the ready availability of data for utilization. Nevertheless, its applicability is limited in scenarios where zero wind effects are a prevailing factor.Originality/valueThe research opens up new possibilities for fuel-efficient aviation, with a particular focus on the development of a unique fuel consumption equation and the pioneering use of the PSO algorithm for optimizing flight parameters. This study’s accessible approach can pave the way for more environmentally conscious and economical flight operations.

Modeling of multi-fractional suspended particle pathways in a shallow water basin under influence of strong winds

In this study, we investigate the complex dynamics of multi-fractional suspended particle transport in a shallow water basin subjected to strong wind conditions. Our research focuses on understanding the interplay between wind-induced advection and particle settlement, and its implications for sediment redistribution.Through our analysis, we reveal the distinct behaviors of different sediment fractions. Clay particles, constituting the lowest fraction in sediment cores, remain suspended throughout the simulation due to their low settlement velocity, with relatively stable concentrations. Conversely, the dominant fraction, medium silt, is suspended during intense wind events but quickly settles to the bed due to its higher settling velocity. Wind stress exceeding 0.05 Pa triggers particulate matter erosion, leading to its presence in the water column.Additionally, we explore the 2D distribution of sediment characteristics, including thickness, dry density, and mud fraction, to identify areas prone to erosion and deposition. Our findings demonstrate that coastal areas of the Taganrog Bay experienced significant erosion following strong wind events, exhibiting the thinnest sediment thickness and the highest dry bulk density. Deposition areas, characterized by thicker sediment layers and lower dry density, were often found in proximity to erosion zones, indicating the influence of particle resuspension and settlement processes.Furthermore, we analyze the implications of our findings on the vulnerability of specific regions to erosion and deposition. The central part of the sea contains moderately thicker sediment layers with a moderately high mud fraction, representing a zone of fine sediment accumulation. These fine sediments, including fine silt and clay, remain suspended for longer durations and are redistributed over greater distances by currents.Overall, our study provides valuable understanding into the multi-fractional suspended particle pathways and their interaction with strong winds in shallow water basins. The results contribute to a better understanding of sediment dynamics, which has implications for coastal management, environmental monitoring, and the preservation of benthic ecosystems.

Trajectory Tracking Control of an Aerial Manipulator in the Presence of Disturbances and Model Uncertainties

The precise control of an aerial manipulator presents a formidable challenge due to the inherent mobility of its base, which is subject to both external disturbances and dynamic disturbances due to manipulator motions. In this paper, we introduce two Closed-Loop Inverse Kinematics (CLIK) control algorithms tailored to aerial manipulators. The first algorithm operates at the velocity level and uses the Generalized Jacobian for inverse kinematics, while the second one operates at the acceleration level. We evaluate their performance in a simulated environment, replicating real-world challenges such as the wind effect, sensors noise, uncertainty of the system inertial parameters, and impulsive forces at the end-effector. Trajectory tracking simulated experiments are carried out for a two- and three-degree-of-freedom (DOF) aerial manipulator tracking a circular trajectory with its end-effector. Both algorithms demonstrate promising results in coping with external disturbances and variations in the inertial parameters, enhancing the precision of the trajectory tracking control. The acceleration-level algorithm shows overall better performance compared to the velocity-level one in the face of greater implementation complexity and computational burden.

Damage prediction for planted longleaf pine in extreme winds

Severe wind disturbances are forecast to increase in frequency and intensity with climate change putting forest trees at greater risk of wind damage. Of particular concern are mature and old-growth forests of wind-prone regions which host considerable biodiversity. Landscape configuration, stand structure, and tree characteristics affect susceptibility to wind damage. In managed forests and restoration contexts, these factors could be manipulated to enhance resistance to severe wind events. We measured landscape, stand, and tree characteristics, and damage in longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) forests in southwest Georgia and Northwest Florida affected by Hurricane Michael (2018) and used these data to model wind damage. We hypothesized that wind damage would increase with wind exposure and decrease with diameter-to-height ratio (taper). We found that lower wind exposure and higher taper resulted in substantially lower wind damage. We conclude that maintaining lower stand density during stand development could reduce wind damage by increasing individual tree resistance to wind. Management and restoration activities that increase resilience to threats from extreme weather can help maintain persistence and landscape restoration of global biodiversity hotspots in wind-prone regions.

Accumulative Heat Stress in Ruminants at the Regional Scale under Changing Environmental Conditions

Environmental heat stress is implicated in various animal health issues in ruminants, including reproduction rates, mortality rates, and animal physical quality. During extremely hot weather, there is often no overnight equilibration of animal temperature with its cooling effect, and the accumulated heat load becomes an important factor in animal health for ruminants such as sheep. Using the heat load index (HLI), a heat load model is used as an indicator of heat stress on an hourly basis and annually, using downscaling models for temperature, humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed, in both spatial and temporal cases, across several example sites in regional Victoria. Analysis is provided on the performance of the downscaling models and various adaptation and mitigation options are discussed and tested. These options include using different tree planting patterns to modify solar radiation exposure and wind effects, with mixed results because adding shading structures may also diminish the effect of wind-based cooling. The modelling experiments indicated that (1) heat stress is likely to increase under future climate conditions and could represent a serious threat to the health of small ruminants; (2) adaptation measures by means of tree planting to provide shade may not be sufficient to alleviate projected heat stress; and (3) other adaptation measures will need to be considered. Indicative results for heat stress under potential future environments are provided for 2030, 2050, and 2070. Also discussed is the performance of wind speed modelling, and the effect of heat stress on animal growth and ram fertility.

Fjord circulation permits a persistent subsurface water mass in a long, deep mid-latitude inlet

Abstract. Fjords are deep nearshore zones that connect watersheds and oceans, typically behaving as an estuary. In some fjords, strong katabatic winds in winter (also known as Arctic outflow wind events) can lead to cooling and reoxygenation of subsurface waters, with effects lasting until the following autumn, as observed in 2019 in Bute Inlet, British Columbia, Canada. We used high-resolution, three-dimensional ocean model summer simulations to investigate the mechanisms allowing for the persistence of these cool, oxygen-rich subsurface conditions in Bute Inlet. The slow residual circulation underneath the brackish outflow (and consequent slow advection) in this long, deep fjord is a main reason why the cold subsurface water mass stays in place until conditions change in autumn (i.e., start of stronger wind mixing and reduced freshwater forcing). Another mechanism is a positive feedback provided by the presence of this subsurface water mass, since it further reduces the already weak residual circulation. These findings are applicable to any similar long, deep fjord that experiences katabatic winds in winter, and they could have implications not only for the preservation of water masses but other possible subsurface features (e.g., pollutant spills, planktonic larvae). Furthermore, the identification of mechanisms that permit persistent cold and oxygenated conditions is key to understanding potential areas of ecological refugia in a warming and deoxygenating ocean.

Thermal analysis for multi-conductor bundle in high voltage overhead transmission lines under the effect of strong wind

Bundle conductors are widely used in HV transmission lines to suppress the corona discharge and reduce the line reactance. To determine its current ampacity of multi-conductor bundle, the thermal analysis is indispensable. A three-dimensional flow-thermal coupling model of multi-conductor bundle considering the effect of strong wind is developed in our study. Using the finite element method, both the temperature field and the fluid field are computed; the characteristics for the multi-physics fields are discussed; the interaction between the fields as well as the mutual influence between subconductors are elucidated. Moreover, a set of sensitivity analysis have been performed, and the effects of load current, conductor spacing, wind speed on temperature field and fluid field are investigated. Based on the pitch-diameter ratio, a novel method to improve the thermal performance of multi-conductor bundle is proposed. Finally, the optimized structure is obtained, and the current ampacity is expected to be greatly enhanced.

Comparative study on dynamic responses of integrated installation process of a 5-MW and a 15-MW offshore wind turbine considering a pre-installed foundation

The integrated installation method for offshore wind turbines has the characteristics of high efficiency and low economic cost due to the small amount of construction work. However, the complexity of the entire system is exacerbated by environmental loads and mechanical couplings. Hence, it is urgent to investigate the dynamic response of OWTs during integrated installation procedures. This work compares the dynamic responses between NREL 5 MW and IEA 15 MW OWT installation systems. The hydrodynamics are calculated using the potential flow theory and the Morison equation, while the aerodynamics under wind turbine parked conditions are computed using the blade element momentum theory. Time domain simulations, considering various wind and wave conditions, are conducted via SIMA. This paper discusses the effects of wind and wave loads on the motion responses of catamaran installation vessel and spar, the relative motion at the mating point, and the sliding gripper forces, respectively. The results reveal that both the surge motions of the catamaran and the spar and the pitch motion of the spar exhibit sensitivity to wind loads. During installation, the motion response of the IEA 15 MW model is more dramatic than that of the NREL 5 MW system. Under wave-only conditions, the radial distances of the mating points for both NREL 5 MW and IEA 15 MW systems reach 1.65 m and 2.51 m, respectively. However, the influences of wind loads and wave incident angle are limited.

Prioritizing landscapes for mitigating the impacts of onshore wind farms on multidimensional waterbird diversity in the Yellow Sea

Abstract Ongoing wind energy developments play a key role in mitigating the global effects of climate change and the energy crisis; however, they have complex ecological consequences for many flying animals. The Yellow Sea coast is considered as an ecological bottleneck for migratory waterbirds along the East Asian–Australasian flyway (EAAF), and is also an important wind farm base in China. However, the effects of large-scale onshore wind farms along the EAAF on multidimensional waterbird diversity, and how to mitigate these effects, remain unclear. Here we examined how wind farms and their surrounding landscapes affected multidimensional waterbird diversity along the Yellow Sea coast. Taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity of the waterbird assemblages, and mean pairwise distances and nearest taxon distances with null models were quantified in relation to 4 different wind turbine densities. We also measured 6 landscape variables. Multi-dimensional waterbird diversity (taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity) significantly decreased with increasing wind turbine density. Functional and phylogenetic structures tended to be clustered in waterbird communities, and environmental filtering drove waterbird community assemblages. Furthermore, waterbird diversity was regulated by a combination of wind turbine density and landscape variables, with edge density of aquaculture ponds, in addition to wind turbine density, having the greatest independent contribution to waterbird diversity. These results suggest that attempts to mitigate the impact of wind farms on waterbird diversity could involve the landscape transformation of wind farm regions, for example, by including high-edge-density aquaculture ponds (i.e., industrial ponds) around wind farms, instead of traditional low-edge-density aquaculture ponds.

Spatiotemporal variability of the coastal circulation in the northern Gulf of Cadiz from Copernicus Sentinel-3A satellite radar altimetry measurements

This study presents a generalised characterisation of the surface circulation over the northern shelf of the Gulf of Cadiz, based on 4 years of high-resolution satellite altimetry data from Sentinel-3A and wind model data. The altimetry-based surface zonal currents, adjusted for bottom-drag and wind effects, are compared with a generic CMEMS product and validated against in-situ ADCP measurements. The proposed altimetry product demonstrates superior performance than the CMEMS product, accurately reflecting surface circulation direction compared to in-situ measurements (r = 0.77, RMSE = 0.10 m/s, bias = 0.01 m/s). The use of the bottom-drag and wind-corrected/uncorrected altimetry product for spatiotemporal analysis of the shelf circulation revealed the distinct contributions of wind-driven and geostrophic components in different basin sectors. The results show that over the western basin, positive (eastward) surface currents were predominantly driven by westerly winds, while only occasionally, westward flows coincided with easterly winds, suggesting a higher control of the geostrophic component over the westward flows. In contrast, over the eastern basin, both eastward and westward flows were found to be primarily driven by favourable winds. Additionally, the analysis of Absolute Dynamic Topography (ADT) values along the whole basin showed the presence of ADT gradients both along-shore and cross-shore over the shelf, contributing to geostrophic flows. Finally, the seasonal analysis showed that eastward circulation tends to dominate during the spring and summer months, related to the upwelling season in the Gulf of Cadiz and associated westerly winds. Westward flows prevail during the winter months, related to easterly winds and the rebalancing of the along-shore sea level gradient during relaxed upwelling conditions. The findings demonstrate a significant improvement in the use of satellite altimetry data to study complex oceanographic dynamics in coastal areas, where both spatial and temporal variability are high. Moreover, the similarity of our results to those obtained from in-situ systems supports the use of altimetry data and publicly available wind models to support oceanographic studies in remote or resource-limited areas.

How well do multi-fire danger rating indices represent China forest fire variations across multi-time scales?

To better support wildfire predictions and risk assessment, multiple fire danger rating indices (FDRIs) have been developed but their credibility in China remains obscure. Compared with the satellite fire observations, 13 FDRIs are evaluated for the historical (2003–2021) forest fire frequency in China from four different time scales: active seasons, trends, interannual variations (IAVs) and discrimination of fire/non-fire days (DFDs). Most FDRIs effectively capture the double active seasons over Southwest China and the dominant active season over Northeast and South China but fail over the other regions. FDRIs with cloud cover perform better in capturing climatological fire seasonality. All FDRIs fail to reproduce the significant decreasing trend of forest fires speculatively due to local fire management and discordant changes in meteorological elements. Most FDRIs have the advantages of the IAVs and DFDs over Southwest China but exhibit deficiencies over the other regions. FDRIs incorporating wind speed perform best in representing both IAVs and DFDs, indicating the indispensable effect of surface wind on the interannual/daily variation of fire danger. This study provides a credible reference for utilizing FDRIs in China, as well as offers insights for developing better regional FDRIs to represent different time-scale variations.

Hydrodynamic Modeling of Water Renewal Time and Potential Dissolved Matter Using TELEMAC: Applications to Shediac Bay (New Brunswick, Canada)

This study examines the hydrodynamic regimes in Shediac Bay, located in New Brunswick, Canada, with a focus on the breach in the Grande-Digue sand spit. The breach, which was developed in the mid-1980s, has raised concerns about its potential impacts on water renewal time and water quality in the inner bay. The aims of this study, using mathematical modeling approaches, were to evaluate the flow regimes passing through the breach and influences on the distribution of dissolved matter, providing insights into whether the breach should be allowed to naturally evolve or be artificially infilled to prevent contaminant stagnancy in the bay. The study considered three simulation scenarios to comprehend the water renewal time and the role of the breach in the environmental management of Shediac Bay. Results indicated that completely closing the breach would significantly increase the water renewal time in the inner bay, although the spatial extent of this increase is limited. However, the study identified some limitations, including the need to better define the concentration limit for considering water as renewed and the lack of consideration of dynamic factors such as wind and wave effects.

Improving the operational forecasts of outdoor Universal Thermal Climate Index with post-processing

The Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) is a thermal comfort index that describes how the human body experiences ambient conditions. It has units of temperature and considers physiological aspects of the human body. It takes into account the effect of air temperature, humidity, wind, radiation, and clothes. It is increasingly used in many countries as a measure of thermal comfort for outdoor conditions, and its value is calculated as part of the operational meteorological forecast. At the same time, forecasts of outdoor UTCI tend to have a relatively large error caused by the error of meteorological forecasts. In Slovenia, there is a relatively dense network of meteorological stations. Crucially, at these stations, global solar radiation measurements are performed continuously, which makes estimating the actual value of the UTCI more accurate compared to the situation where no radiation measurements are available. We used seven years of measurements in hourly resolution from 42 stations to first verify the operational UTCI forecast for the first forecast day and, secondly, to try to improve the forecast via post-processing. We used two machine-learning methods, linear regression, and neural networks. Both methods have successfully reduced the error in the operational UTCI forecasts. Both methods reduced the daily mean error from about 2.6∘\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$^{\\circ }$$\\end{document}C to almost zero, while the daily mean absolute error decreased from 5∘\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$^{\\circ }$$\\end{document}C to 3∘\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$^{\\circ }$$\\end{document}C for the neural network and 3.5∘\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$^{\\circ }$$\\end{document}C for linear regression. Both methods, especially the neural network, also substantially reduced the dependence of the error on the time of the day.

An integrative modelling framework for predicting the compound flood hazards induced by tropical cyclones in an estuarine area

In this study, a novel numerical model is first developed, which can simulate compound floods under a framework comprehensively considering the combined effects of tide, river flow, rainfall, and wind. The modelling framework is applied to reproduce an extreme compound flood event in the Pearl River Delta caused by Typhoon Hato (2017). The model is estimated to perform reasonably well, which can yield consistent results compared with observations including winds, water levels, and inundation depths over the study area. Inundation was concentrated on downstream estuaries and floodplains and coastal forcings played a dominant role in this compound event. However, ignoring river and rainfall contributions would result in an underestimation of flood extent and water levels that could be up to 48%. Sensitivity tests indicate that precise calibration of the roughness coefficient is more critical in river and estuarine environments than in land region. This study demonstrates the importance of utilizing an integrative framework to assess and predict compound flooding hazards driven by the effects of tropical cyclones.

Wind effects on rectangular plan building located in a hilly terrain: A wind tunnel investigation

Wind effects on rectangular plan building located in a hilly terrain: A wind tunnel investigation

Middle Pleistocene climate change influenced northward divergence and cold adaptation in an Asian lady’s slipper orchid, Cypripedium macranthos Sw. (Orchidaceae)

Abstract The Pleistocene was characterized by climate fluctuations with rapid transitions between glacial and interglacial periods. East Asia’s land bridge dynamics and monsoon system during the Middle Pleistocene transition (MPT) further constrained species distributions and dispersals, which promoted local adaptation and species diversification, making East Asia an excellent location to study species biogeography. Cypripedium macranthos Sw., a terrestrial orchid, diverged in the Pleistocene and became widespread in Russia, China, Korea, and Japan. Many populations are now at risk due to illegal harvesting or habitat loss. With comprehensive sampling including 171 individuals among 22 populations across the entire distribution range, together with plastid DNA sequencing, we have explored the origin and impact of palaeoclimate on its spatial genetic structure and historical biogeography. Regression-based analyses commonly used in landscape genetics were also applied to investigate the effects of precipitation, temperature, and wind on gene flow. The results revealed northeastern China as the probable cradle of C. macranthos, with northeastward divergence and range expansion during the MPT, aided by monsoon shifts and wind-driven seed dispersal. Isolation by environment was detected with winter temperature as a driver for north–south divergence controlling for an effect of isolation by distance, revealing cold adaptation of the northern populations or temperature-driven genetic differentiation. We also emphasize the founder speciation of an unique variety on Rebun Island of Japan. The widespread but genetically and ecologically divergent C. macranthos populations highlight the need for more conservation attention on northern populations under global warming.