Control Of Viral Diseases Research Articles

Crude peptides extracted from dry mycelium of Penicillium chrysogenum serve as a micro-associated molecular pattern to induce systemic resistance against tobacco mosaic virus in tobacco

Control of viral diseases using systemic resistance-inducing microbes and microbial metabolites/molecules is an established alternative strategy for inhibiting plant viruses. However, the mechanisms whereby virus infection is inhibited and restricted in plants expressing systemic resistance remains poorly understood. We have previously reported that an aqueous extract of the dry mycelium of Penicillium chrysogenum (DMP) can be used to protect tobacco plants against Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). In this study, we investigated the effect of crude peptides derived from DMP (PDMP) in protecting Nicotiana glutinosa against TMV. The number and diameter of TMV lesions in plants pre-treated with PDMP were fewer and smaller, respectively, than those in control plants. The elevated expressions of PAL, PTI5, PR-1a, NPR1, PR-1b, and PDF1.2 detected in the induced and systemic leaves following PDMP treatment indicated that the PDMP induced basal and systemic resistance in N. glutinosa. Callose deposition and TMV-N gene-triggered hypersensitive response (HR) at the site of the TMV infection were identified as key factors restricting the movement of viruses. The levels of N gene transcripts, as well as those of the TMV-N gene-triggered HR-related genes HSR203J, AOXa, SIPK, and ZFT1 increased more rapidly after being challenged with TMV in N. glutinosa plants pre-treated with PDMP compared with the control plants. However, we detected no significant difference between PDMP-treated and control plants with respect to TMV-induced callose deposition, indicating that PDMP enhances the resistance of N. glutinosa against TMV by accelerating TMV-N gene-triggered-HR rather than by priming callose deposition.

Challenges and Solutions to Viral Diseases of Finfish in Marine Aquaculture

Aquaculture is the fastest food-producing sector in the world, accounting for one-third of global food production. As is the case with all intensive farming systems, increase in infectious diseases has adversely impacted the growth of marine fish farming worldwide. Viral diseases cause high economic losses in marine aquaculture. We provide an overview of the major challenges limiting the control and prevention of viral diseases in marine fish farming, as well as highlight potential solutions. The major challenges include increase in the number of emerging viral diseases, wild reservoirs, migratory species, anthropogenic activities, limitations in diagnostic tools and expertise, transportation of virus contaminated ballast water, and international trade. The proposed solutions to these problems include developing biosecurity policies at global and national levels, implementation of biosecurity measures, vaccine development, use of antiviral drugs and probiotics to combat viral infections, selective breeding of disease-resistant fish, use of improved diagnostic tools, disease surveillance, as well as promoting the use of good husbandry and management practices. A multifaceted approach combining several control strategies would provide more effective long-lasting solutions to reduction in viral infections in marine aquaculture than using a single disease control approach like vaccination alone.

Distribution and Genetic Diversity of Grapevine Viruses in Russia.

Viral diseases can seriously damage the vineyard productivity and the quality of grape and wine products. Therefore, the study of the species composition and range of grapevine viruses is important for the development and implementation of strategies and tactics to limit their spread and increase the economic benefits of viticulture. In 2014–2019, we carried out a large-scale phytosanitary monitoring of Russian commercial vineyards in the Krasnodar region, Stavropol region and Republic of Crimea. A total of 1857 samples were collected and tested for the presence of Grapevine rupestris stem pitting-associated virus (GRSPaV), Grapevine virus A (GVA), Grapevine leafroll-associated virus-1 (GLRaV-1), Grapevine leafroll-associated virus-2 (GLRaV-2), Grapevine leafroll-associated virus-3 (GLRaV-3), Grapevine fanleaf virus (GFLV), and Grapevine fleck virus (GFkV) using RT-PCR. Out of all samples tested, 54.5% were positive for at least one of the viruses (GRSPaV, GVA, GLRaV-1, GLRaV-2, GLRaV-3, GFLV, GFkV) in the Stavropol region, 49.8% in the Krasnodar region and 49.5% in the Republic of Crimea. Some plants were found to be infected with several viruses simultaneously. In the Republic of Crimea, for instance, a number of plants were infected with five viruses. In the Krasnodar region and the Republic of Crimea, 4.7% and 3.3% of the samples were predominantly infected with both GFkV and GRSPaV, whereas in the Stavropol region, 6% of the selected samples had both GLRaV-1 and GVA infections. We carried out a phylogenetic analysis of the coat protein genes of the detected viruses and identified the presence of GVA of groups I and IV, GRSPaV of groups BS and SG1, GLRaV-1 of group III, GLRaV-2 of groups PN and H4, GLRaV-3 of groups I and III. The results obtained make it possible to assess the viral load and the distribution of the main grapevine viruses on plantations in the viticultural zones of Russia, emphasizing the urgent need to develop and implement long-term strategies for the control of viral diseases of grapes.

BLB8, an antiviral protein from Brevibacillus laterosporus strain B8, inhibits Tobacco mosaic virus infection by triggering immune response in tobacco

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is one of destructive plant viruses, causing serious economic losses in the world. Using antiviral proteins or elicitors to inhibit viral infection or promote plant immunity is one of the efficient strategies against TMV. Our previous study identified that the fermentation broth of Brevibacillus laterosporus strain B8 showed strong antiviral activity against TMV. However, the active antiviral ingredient is still unclear. Here, BLB8 (B. laterosporus strain B8 protein, BLB8), an antiviral protein from B. laterosporus strain B8 was isolated and characterized. BLB8 showed protective, inactive and curative effects against TMV, and the inhibition rate reached up to 63%, 83% and 55%, respectively. BLB8 infiltrated around the infection site of the recombinant virus TMV-GFP inhibited the systemic extend and movement of TMV. Pretreatment of the bottom leaves with BLB8 inhibited the spread and accumulation of TMV in upper systemic leaves. Furthermore, BLB8 caused hypersensitive response (HR) in a dose-dependent way, promoted H2 O2 accumulation, and induced the expression of defense-relative genes in Nicotiana benthamiana. The antiviral protein BLB8 from B. laterosporus strain B8 effectively inhibits TMV infection in inactivation, protective and curative effects through triggering plant immunity in tobacco. Therefore, the present study provides a new antiviral agent for prevention and control of viral disease. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Recent Advances on the Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Molecular Pathogenesis, Immune Response, and Vaccines Development.

The bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) consists of two species and various subspecies of closely related viruses of varying antigenicity, cytopathology, and virulence-induced pathogenesis. Despite the great ongoing efforts to control and prevent BVDV outbreaks and the emergence of new variants, outbreaks still reported throughout the world. In this review, we are focusing on the molecular biology of BVDV, its molecular pathogenesis, and the immune response of the host against the viral infection. Special attention was paid to discuss some immune evasion strategies adopted by the BVDV to hijack the host immune system to ensure the success of virus replication. Vaccination is one of the main strategies for prophylaxis and contributes to the control and eradication of many viral diseases including BVDV. We discussed the recent advances of various types of currently available classical and modern BVDV vaccines. However, with the emergence of new strains and variants of the virus, it is urgent to find some other novel targets for BVDV vaccines that may overcome the drawbacks of some of the currently used vaccines. Effective vaccination strategy mainly based on the preparation of vaccines from the homologous circulating strains. The BVDV-E2 protein plays important role in viral infection and pathogenesis. We mapped some important potential neutralizing epitopes among some BVDV genomes especially the E2 protein. These novel epitopes could be promising targets against the currently circulating strains of BVDV. More research is needed to further explore the actual roles of these epitopes as novel targets for the development of novel vaccines against BVDV. These potential vaccines may contribute to the global eradication campaign of the BVDV.

Analysis of the Feasibility of a Vaccination Campaign against Influenza Epidemic and COVID-19 Pandemic in French Emergency Departments: A National Survey.

Background: Vaccination is one of the most effective ways to fight the influenza epidemic and the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which represent a major public issue. The objective was to investigate the adherence of heads of French emergency departments (ED) and nursing departments on a potential vaccination campaign of healthcare workers (HCW) and patients in ED. Method: In February 2021, ED and nursing department heads were asked to answer a national survey. It included 24 questions designed to cover some dimensions, including characteristics of the hospital and emergency departments (ED) and questions on vaccination. Results: 414 responses out of 800 questionnaires (51.8%) were collected. Scores out of 10 were, respectively, 7 (6–8) and 8 (6–9) for vaccination against influenza and COVID-19 for HCW and 2 (2–3) and 2 (2–4) for ED patients (H = 989.3; p < 0.0001). Multivariate logistic regression found that the existence of a vaccine program in the hospital and the use of point of care influenza PCR in ED were positively associated with the acceptance of influenza vaccination campaign for HCW (p = 0.003) and patients (p = 0.015). Factors limiting adherence to a vaccination program of HCW and patients were lack of medical staff (p = 0.041 for HCW and p < 0.0001 for patients), overcrowded ED (p < 0.001), and the inability to follow up with patients after the ED visit (p < 0.0001). Conclusions: There have been many missed opportunities for influenza vaccination, and there is pressure to vaccinate against COVID-19 as soon as possible. Vaccination campaigns in ED could help to improve vaccination coverage. ED staff are more likely to vaccinate HCW than patients. There are factors that support the implementation of such programs, which can be grouped into a culture of diagnosis, control, and prevention of viral infectious diseases within the hospital and ED. On the other hand, there are limiting factors, such as overcrowding and lack of personnel.

A short overview of CRISPR-Cas technology and its application in viral disease control.

Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPRs) together with CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins have catalysed a revolution in genetic engineering. Native CRISPR-Cas systems exist in many bacteria and archaea where they provide an adaptive immune response through sequence-specific degradation of an invading pathogen’s genome. This system has been reconfigured for use in genome editing, drug development, gene expression regulation, diagnostics, the prevention and treatment of cancers, and the treatment of genetic and infectious diseases. In recent years, CRISPR-Cas systems have been used in the diagnosis and control of viral diseases, for example, CRISPR-Cas12/13 coupled with new amplification techniques to improve the specificity of sequence-specific fluorescent probe detection. Importantly, CRISPR applications are both sensitive and specific and usually only require commonly available lab equipment. Unlike the canonical Cas9 which is guided to double-stranded DNA sites of interest, Cas13 systems target RNA sequences and thus can be employed in strategies directed against RNA viruses or for transcriptional silencing. Many challenges remain for these approach, including issues with specificity and the requirement for better mammalian delivery systems. In this review, we summarize the applications of CRISPR-Cas systems in controlling mammalian viral infections. Following necessary improvements, it is expected that CRISPR-Cas systems will be used effectively for such applications in the future.

Effect of border crops and intercropping on aphid infestation and the associated viral diseases in hot pepper (Capsicum sp.)

Aphids are associated with loss in yield and quality of pepper crop due to damage they cause and the transmission of viruses in a non-persistent manner. The aim of the study was to determine the potential of border crops and intercrops in the management of aphids and the associated viruses in hot pepper production. Field experiments were carried out for two seasons in 2018/2019 at Rubona Research station, Huye District, Rwanda. Maize (Zea Mays L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus) were tested as companion crops associated with hot pepper either as border crops or as intercrops. Randomized complete block design was used with four treatments and three replications per experiment. Data on aphid population, the virus disease incidence, the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC), growth and yield of hot pepper were recorded. Diseased leaf samples were collected and analysed serologically to detect the viruses present in the experimental plots. Aphid-transmitted viruses; Cucumber mosaic virus, Potato virus Y and Pepper veinal mottle virus, and aphid species, namely Aphis gossypii and Macrosiphum euphorbiae were identified in the experimental plots. The use of maize, sorghum or sunflower as border crops or as intercrops significantly reduced (p < 0.05) the incidence of viral diseases in hot pepper compared with control at later stages of growth. At 12 weeks after transplanting (WAP), use of maize, sunflower or sorghum as border crops significantly reduced (p < 0.05) the incidence of viral diseases by 24%, 31% and 38% compared with the control in season one and by 32%, 54% and 46% in season two. Similarly, intercropping with maize, sunflower or sorghum was also effective in reducing incidence of viral diseases in hot pepper by 24%, 35% and 27% in season one, and by 39%, 39% and 32% in season two, respectively. The AUDPC differed significantly (p < 0.05) while the population of aphids did not differ (p > 0.05) among treatments for both experiments. Results revealed that maize, sorghum and sunflower can be utilized either as border crops or intercrops for the control of viral diseases in pepper production. This technology is environmentally friendly, easily adaptable and appropriate since the production of pepper is mainly done by resource-poor farmers.

Investigating Incidence and Distribution of Alfalfa-Infecting Viruses in China

Alfalfa is a primary forage crop in China that occupies a wide planting area and exhibits a variety of beneficial traits such as being nutrient rich and producing high yields. As the planting area continues to expand, alfalfa pests and pathogens are becoming more prolific, especially viral pathogens which negatively impact alfalfa quality and yield significantly. From 2016 to 2019, 516 alfalfa samples exhibiting potential symptoms of viral infection were collected from several major production regions in China, including 13 provinces and 21 collection sites. RT-PCR using special conserved primers designed to detect several common alfalfa-infecting viruses was used to determine the incidence and distribution of these viruses throughout China. AMV, TMV, ToMV, CPMV, BYMV, CMV, YMV, and SMV were detected in alfalfa crops throughout China, with AMV being most prevalent with an incidence rate of 57.6%, while this is the first time that CMV and TMV have been found infecting alfalfa crops in China. This is also the first investigation of the distribution of various alfalfa viruses throughout China, providing theoretical and technical support for early warning and control of viral disease of alfalfa in China.

Investigating Incidence and Distribution of Alfalfa-Infecting Viruses in China

Alfalfa is a primary forage crop in China that occupies a wide planting area and exhibits a variety of beneficial traits such as being nutrient rich and producing high yields. As the planting area continues to expand, alfalfa pests and pathogens are becoming more prolific, especially viral pathogens which negatively impact alfalfa quality and yield significantly. From 2016 to 2019, 516 alfalfa samples exhibiting potential symptoms of viral infection were collected from several major production regions in China, including 13 provinces and 21 collection sites. RT-PCR using special conserved primers designed to detect several common alfalfa-infecting viruses was used to determine the incidence and distribution of these viruses throughout China. AMV, TMV, ToMV, CPMV, BYMV, CMV, YMV, and SMV were detected in alfalfa crops throughout China, with AMV being most prevalent with an incidence rate of 57.6%, while this is the first time that CMV and TMV have been found infecting alfalfa crops in China. This is also the first investigation of the distribution of various alfalfa viruses throughout China, providing theoretical and technical support for early warning and control of viral disease of alfalfa in China.

Methanol Skin Mucus Extract of Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) Fish Peptide Targeting Viral Particles of Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus (IPNV) and Infectious Salmon Anemia Virus (ISAV): an in silico Approach

The teleost fish skin mucus acts as an important physical and biological barrier that prevents fish from the surrounding environment. Many studies reported the presence of various immunological molecules in fish skin mucus that involve in protection against invading microbes. In the present study, the skin mucus proteins of freshwater fish Cirrhinus mrigala (mrigal) were extracted using organic solvent (methanol) and further analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) to identify proteins by database retrieval. LC–MS/MS analysis revealed the presence of diverse proteins in the methanol skin mucus extract. The identified proteins were classified into biological process, cellular process and molecular functions by Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis. A peptide was selected, modelled and compared with other antimicrobial peptides sequences through phylogenetic analysis and showed that the modelled peptide shared high similarity with Arminin-1 of Cnidaria animals. We also investigated the potentiality of the modelled peptide against Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus sub viral particle and Infectious Salmon Anemia Virus hemagglutinin-esterase protein through protein-peptide docking using ClusPro. The docking results confirmed that the modelled peptide has good interactions with viral particles. Therefore, these results suggest that the modelled peptide molecule from C. mrigala methanol skin mucus extract can be further studied that aid in the development of novel peptide candidate for the control of aquaculture viral diseases.

The 100 Top-cited Studies on Ebola: A Bibliometric Analysis

The achievements in Ebola virus disease (EVD) prevention and control can be reflected by scientific studies, particularly in the top-cited studies. The study thus aimed to identify and characterise the 100 top-cited studies of EVD. The study used a retrospective bibliometric-analysis, which was performed in January 2020. Studies were searched from the Web of Science using keywords: “Ebola” or “Ebola virus” or “Ebola virus disease” to identify the 100 top-cited EVD studies. Studies were analysed for the number of citations, authorship, and journal, year of publication, country and institution. The analyses were carried out using SPSS, HistCite and VOSviewer. The 100 top-cited studies were published between 1977 and 2017, cited from 169 to 808 times and had an average citation of 290.5, and 8 studies were cited more than 500 times. They were published in 31 journals, and the Journal of Virology published most of the studies (n=14). They were produced by 33 countries, and the USA published most of the studies (63), followed by Germany (8) and Gabon (6). CDC-USA (26) was the leading institution, while Geisbert TW and Sanchez A were the most productive authors. This study provides insights into the historical advancements reflected by the top-cited studies and has highlighted the leading roles played by various stakeholders in addressing EVD. However, the contribution of African countries is not sufficiently reflected among these studies, and so more focus, funding and involvement in clinical research is needed for effective prevention and control of EVD in Africa.

Photo-catalyzed TiO2 inactivates pathogenic viruses by attacking viral genome

Previous observations have been reported that viruses were inactivated using strong irradiation. Here, new evidence was disclosed by studying the effects of nanosized TiO2 on viral pathogens under a low irradiation condition (0.4 mW/cm2 at UVA band) that mimics the field setting. We showed that photo-activated TiO2 efficiently inhibits hepatitis C virus infection, and weak indoor light with intensity of 0.6 mW/cm2 at broad-spectrum wavelength and around 0.15 mW/cm2 of UVA band also lead to partial inhibition. Mechanistic studies demonstrated that hydroxyl radicals produced by photo-activated TiO2 do not destroy virion structure and contents, but attack viral RNA genome, thus inactivating the virus. Furthermore, we showed that photo-activated TiO2 inactivates a broad range of human viral pathogens, including SARS-CoV-2, a novel coronavirus responsible for the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. In conclusion, we showed that photo-catalyzed nanosized TiO2 inactivates pathogenic viruses, paving a way to its field application in control of viral infectious diseases.

Mathematical Model of the Transmission Dynamics of Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19) and Its Control

This work is aimed at formulating a mathematical model for the transmission dynamics and control of corona virus disease in a population. The Disease Free Equilibrium state of the model was determined and shown to be locally asymptotically stable. The Endemic Equilibrium state of the model was also established and proved to be locally asymptotically stable using the trace and determinant method, after which we determined the basic reproduction number ( ) of the model using the next generation method. When ( ), the disease is wiped out of a population, but if ( ), the disease invades such population. Local sensitivity analysis result shows that the rate at which the exposed are quarantined ( ), the rate at which the infected are isolated ( ), the rate at which the quarantined are isolated ( ), and the treatment rate ( ) should be targeted by the control intervention strategies as an increase in the values of these parameters ( and ) will reduce the basic reproduction number ( ) of the COVID-19 and as such will eliminate the disease from the population with time. Numerical simulation of the model shows that the disease will be eradicated with time when enlightenment control measure for the susceptible individuals to observe social distance, frequent use of hand sanitizers, covering of mouth when coughing or sneezing are properly observed. Moreso, increasing the rates at which the suspected and confirmed cases of COVID-19 are quarantined and isolated respectively reduce the spread of the global pandemic.

Nematode Extract and Acaciasides Use as Preventive Biomedicines Against Plant Diseases: Improved Earth-Environmental-Health-Research Science-TechnologyCommunication and May be Controlled 21st-Century Pandemic Diseases!

Traditional chemical control using chemical pesticides available for the last few decades is in a declining status internationally. Thus, there remains a need for developing effective biomedicines which would be cheap, non-phytotoxic, and non-pollutant. Animal-biomedicine, Nematode extract (NE) of the females of Meloidogyne incognita @ 0.14 mg/ plant- and plant-biomedicines, acaciasides (A and B; two triterpenoid saponins) isolated from the funicles of Acacia auriculiformis @ 20 mg/plant, applied by foliar spray on okra plants (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Cv. Ankur-40) reduced M. incognita and yellow vein mosaic virus (YVMV) infection of the host plants and enhanced their growth. Treatment with NE followed by the application of acaciasides gave better control of root-knot and YVMV diseases and promoted higher growth of plants. The protein content of fruits has also been increased in both cases. Using double the dose of acaciasides alone, by foliar spray and soil drench gave no better results with respect to the control of nematodes and viral diseases and growth of the test plants. An analysis of protein, by electrophoresis and densitometer scanning of the test plants, showed that treatment with both the extracts resulted in the increased number of proteins in the roots. This indicates that both the extracts can induce the expression of some new pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins, which might have inhibited nematodes and YVMV infection like plant diseases. So, Nematode extract and acaciasides use as preventive potential biomedicines against plant diseases by improving agriculture, crop production, toxic-free earth-environmental-health and research, science-technology, and communication, and may be controlled 21st-century pandemic diseases by increasing natural immunity. And in the future synthetic production of biomedicine-NE will be cost-effective, easily maintainable supply-chains, accurate information, plans for ensuring sustainable developments, continuous supply of essential medicines by improving the biomedicines for the benefit of public health with the development of earth-environmental-health and research.

Interactions between commensal bacteria and viral infection: insights for viral disease control in farmed animals.

Viral diseases cause serious economic loss in farmed animals industry. However, the efficacy of remedies for viral infection in farmed animals is limited, and treatment strategies are generally lacking for aquatic animals. Interactions of commensal microbiota and viral infection have been studied in recent years, demonstrating a third player in the interaction between hosts and viruses. Here, we discuss recent developments in the research of interactions between commensal bacteria and viral infection, including both promotion and inhibition effect of commensal bacteria on viral pathogenesis, as well as the impact of viral infection on commensal microbiota. The antiviral effect of commensal bacteria is mostly achieved through priming or regulation of the host immune responses, involving differential microbial components and host signaling pathways, and gives rise to various antiviral probiotics. Moreover, we summarize studies related to the interaction between commensal bacteria and viral infection in farmed animals, including pigs, chickens, fish and invertebrate species. Further studies in this area will deepen our understanding of antiviral immunity of farmed animals in the context of commensal microbiota, and promote the development of novel strategies for treatment of viral diseases in farmed animals.

Analysis of differences between SARS-CoV-2 and SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) from multiple perspectives

Novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) grows with each passing day worldwide, and the number of infections is increasing. SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, belongs to coronavirus, which is the same as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in 2003. In this study, we analyzed and discussed the differences between coronaviruses of COVID-19 and SARS, as well as the intermediate hosts of the two coronaviruses, in order to provide a reference for the prevention and control of viral diseases from the perspective of wild animals, and also for the transmission of coronavirus.

Vaccines in control of infectious diseases of swine

The study presents data concerning vaccines registered in the EU that are used in the prevention and control of viral and bacterial infectious diseases of swine in Poland. It discusses novel vaccines against infectious diseases of swine, such as ileitis, influenza A virus, and mycoplasmal pneumonia. The advantages of intradermal administration of selected vaccines against certain diseases are discussed. Selected problems regarding the efficacy of vaccination against influenza A virus and PRRS are underlined. The study points out that the efficacy of immunization with inactivated vaccines against PRRS is limited. This, however, may also be true of live vaccines against PRRS, since results of immunization with some live attenuated vaccines can be unsatisfactory as well. It is explained by the fact that there are relatively frequent genetic changes in the genome of the field PRRSV strains, unlike in the virus strain or strains used in the vaccine. Strategies to optimize the use of currently available vaccines against influenza A virus (IAV) are discussed. It is worth noting the high efficacy of the vaccine containing antigens of subtypes H1N1, H3N2, and H1N1 against influenza A virus. Vaccination against IAV induces the production of neutralizing antibodies and protection with a very similar strain. As far as vaccines against viral diseases of swine (pseudorabies, classical swine fever) are concerned, the marker vaccines appear to be very useful in differentiating infected animals from vaccinated ones (DIVA strategy). At the beginning of the 21st century, several new effective vaccines were developed, produced, and used against diarrheal diseases of different etiology and, for the first time, against oedema disease, ileitis, and enzootic pneumonia of swine. In view of the growing problem of mixed infections, the study presents several new vaccines containing multiple antigens of one pathogen (serotypes/genotypes) or different pathogens in combination (polyvalent vaccines). The study also discusses the role of the strategy of vaccination depending on the course of the infectious disease, the type of vaccine, as well as the production system of swine.

人类消灭天花对有效防控新型冠状病毒肺炎的启示

人类消灭天花对有效防控新型冠状病毒肺炎的启示

Aetiological Diagnosis of the U-EPS-S Test in Patients with Chronic Prostatitis-Like Symptoms

Background: Prostate examination is considered to be most important in the diagnosis and differential diagnosis of patients with chronic prostatitis-like symptoms, and little attention has been given to other genital organ examinations for these patients. We speculate that this may be an important factor affecting the treatment effect of chronic prostatitis. Methods: We randomly selected 200 patients with chronic prostatitis-like symptoms from the clinic services of hospitals in China for this study and used a urine-prostate-semen test (U-EPS-S test) to collect urine, prostatic secretion and semen specimens. The specimens were inoculated into a suitable medium culture for bacteriological/fungal localization detection, and the number and distribution of colonies in each isolation culture were observed. The gene assay by PCR was used to further identify the Chlamydia and the species of Neisseria and Candida. Findings: All of these patients had an infection of the internal genital organs, and the infection rate was 100%. Of these, prostatic secretion-positive isolation cultures were obtained in 66 cases (33%), semen-positive isolation cultures were obtained in 34 cases (17%), and prostatic secretion- and semen-positive isolation cultures were obtained in 100 cases (50%). In these patients, gram-positive microbes were the most common pathogens, accounting for 91.1%. Positive isolation cultures of more than two kinds of microbes occurred in 107 cases, and multiple microbial infections (MMIs) accounted for 53.5%. Positive isolation cultures of semen and both prostatic secretions and semen occurred in 134 cases, and multi-organ infections (MOIs) accounted for 67%. Interpretations: In patients with chronic prostatitis symptoms, there was a high incidence of MMI and MOI caused by resistant strains of different microbial species, and gram-positive microbes were the most common causative agents. Neglecting semen sample collection and posttherapy pathogen redetection are important factors leading to missed diagnosis and misdiagnosis of patients and thus treatment failure. Funding: This study was supported by the Science and Technology Department of Guizhou Province of China (SY[2001]3045) and Health Department of Guizhou Province of China (gzwkj2009-1-028) and State Key Laboratory for Infectious Diseases Prevention and Control, National Institute for Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2011SKLID302). Declaration of Interest: We declare no competing interests. Ethical Approval: This protocol was evaluated and approved by the ethics committee of Guizhou Medical University.