Video Relay Service Research Articles

Space, body and presence

Abstract The trend towards remote interpreting has caused a radical change for interpreters worldwide, one that has shifted their workplace from well-known physical spaces to new digital spaces. Research to date has documented specific settings, language combinations and/or interpreting modes, and it has usually focused on certain forms of remote interpreting (e.g., video remote interpreting, video relay service). The combinations of different characteristics and factors in remote interpreting are almost infinite, however, and single terms fail to depict and cover all possible variations. This article proposes an analytical framework that uses conceptualisations of space, body and presence to analyse interpreting assignments in digital spaces, regardless of language combination, setting and mode. Two examples are used to illustrate the application of this framework: a hybrid conference and a meeting in virtual reality (VR), both of them involving sign language interpreting. The use of VR has undergone a substantial increase in the past few years, having developed rapidly. It is therefore possible that future interpreting assignments might take place in this new digital space. The application of these two scenarios shows that the analytical framework can be used both to reflect on past and to anticipate future assignments.

Video Relay Service Recording System Using Packet-Capture Multiple Buckets Architecture

This paper presents a research and development work for the automatic service recording system using network-based monitoring approach. The project is under the cooperation of National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) and Thai Telecommunication Relay Service (TTRS). The goal is to archive and record video relay services offered to the deaf and hard of hearing community. Using the network-based monitoring approach, we can develop a video recording system that is fully automated and intelligent to analyze different kinds of video relay services. In brief, the system functions to capture network traffic and analyze network packets, signaling, and related protocols such as TCP, UDP, SIP, SDP, RTP, as well as H.264, G.711 encoding. Then, it records the relevant media streams, creates a video file containing the whole video relay service conversation, and send the file to archive in the cloud storage. The benefits include verification in case of appeal, service evaluation, and service improvement. A technical challenge in this system development is how to process real-time interactive multi flows because it must detect and process a large number of call signaling and media streams that occur as interactive real time. The optimization is vital so that the system can swiftly do the processing in time, without causing the buffer overflow problem that can degrade the recording quality. In this regard, we developed a novel methodology for processing PCAP (Packet Capture) called Multiple Buckets Architecture. Our test results showed that it can significantly reduce the probability of buffer overflow, making the processing more efficient when compared to the traditional processing of single bucket.

Would you like some background? Establishing shared rights and duties in video relay service calls to the police

When an interpreter mediates a call from the public to a police force control room (FCR), the partnership established between the interpreter and the call-handler is critical to the caller’s ability to be understood and supported. Using Davies and Harré’s Positioning Theory, this study investigates different approaches to the establishment of relationships and identities during the opening phases of a non-emergency police video relay services (VRS) call. The data consist of four simulated VRS-interpreted calls to a Police Scotland FCR and focus group reflections. This article describes two opening approaches to interpreter-mediated communication, namely the emergent approach, where rights and duties are established and reviewed, and the process-driven approach, which focuses on the completion of tasks. The emergent approach demonstrates the benefits of establishing consent and the multiple roles that are collectively performed, whereas a process-driven approach during the opening phase of a call does not train callers how to participate in a 101VRS call. The findings emphasise the need for trainers and policymakers to support interpreters in handling their auxiliary role as first call receiver.

Embodying dual actions as interpreting practice

Abstract This study demonstrates how interpreters in a Swedish video relay service (VRS) between deaf and hearing users can simultaneously accomplish two different actions, each directed to a particular user of the service. The study takes a multimodal, ethnomethodological conversation analysis (EMCA) perspective and is empirically based on a corpus of 25 recordings from authentic video calls. Our analysis shows how interpreters, through what we call dual action design, are able to: (1) offer the floor to one party while informing the other party, (2) refer to one of the participants using different forms of deictic reference for the two users of the service, and (3) request confirmation of a source statement from one party while rendering a statement to benefit the other party. The study contributes to current discussions relating to sequentiality, simultaneity, and positioning in interpreting studies and multimodal interaction research.

Interpreter-mediated interactions between people using a signed respective spoken language across distances in real time: a scoping review

BackgroundCommunication between people who are deaf and sign and people who use a spoken language is possible by means of an interpreter. Interpreting in real time can be performed at a distance, which differs from interpreting face-to-face. Due to COVID-19, interpretation at a distance has increased.ObjectiveThe objective of this study was to map the existing literature to identify key characteristics by addressing the following question: What is known about interpreted mediated interactions between people using a signed respective spoken language across distances in real time?DesignEight online databases, complemented by a search in one nonindexed journal of relevance to the review, were used to identify original studies published in 2010–2020, and 17 publications met the inclusion criteria. Charting of the data revealed insight from 17 original studies that were extracted, summarized, and reported.ResultsFour key characteristics were identified: (1) advantages and challenges in remote interpreting; (2) the need for training in remote interpreting and video relay service (VRS); (3) regulations and organizational structures of VRS; and (4) the interpreter as an active party in VRS.ConclusionRemote interpreting has several challenges but also advantages. Knowledge of these kinds of interactions is limited, and further research must be initiated and realized, not least due to technological developments and the increased number of interpreting events.

Making virtual health care accessible to the deaf community: Findings from the telehealth survey

Introduction To reduce COVID-19 exposure risk, virtual visits became widely adopted as a common form of healthcare delivery for the general population. It is unknown how this affected the deaf population, a sociolinguistic minority group that continues to face communication and healthcare barriers. The survey's objective was to describe the deaf participants’ experiences with telehealth visits. Methods A 28-item online survey, available in American Sign Language and English, was developed and disseminated between November 2020 and January 2021. Ninety-nine deaf participants responded. Descriptive statistics were performed to assess the participant's virtual health care use, experiences, and communication approaches. Results Seventy-five percent of respondents used telehealth at least once in the past 12 months (n = 74; age = 37.6 ± 14.5 years). Of those who used telehealth, nearly two-thirds experienced communication challenges (65.3%; n = 49). Half of the participants reported having to connect via a video relay service that employs interpreters who maintain general certification instead of a remote interpreter with specialized health care interpreting certifications for video visits with their health care providers (n = 37) and a third of participants reported needing to use their residual hearing to communicate with their providers (n = 25). Conclusion Standard protocols for health care systems and providers are needed to minimize the burden of access on deaf patients and ensure virtual visits are equitable. It is recommended these visits be offered on Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act-compliant platforms and include multi-way video to allow for the inclusion of remote medical interpreters and/or real-time captionists to ensure effective communication between the provider and the deaf patient occurs.

Cortisol dysregulation among American Sign Language interpreters in different work settings: Confirmation of occupational health risks

Cumulative motion injuries and burnout contribute to an international shortage of signed language interpreters (SLIs). Studies using the Job Content Questionnaire, a well-validated measure of occupational health risks, indicate that risk levels differ among SLI work settings. Specifically, video relay service (VRS) and primary and secondary educational settings (K–12) are associated with greater health risks. The current study validated those results by analysing the diurnal rhythm of salivary cortisol levels. Anomalies in diurnal cortisol rhythms are associated with an array of health problems. Our full-time SLI participants included VRS workers ( N = 20), K–12 workers ( N = 18), and SLIs who worked in other settings ( N = 23). Non-interpreters using sign language daily at work ( N = 18) comprised a fourth group. Saliva samples were collected four times daily over 2 working days. The VRS and K–12 SLIs demonstrated lower morning peak cortisol levels and flatter diurnal cortisol slopes from morning peak to subsequent diminution. Both findings are associated with chronic stress and greater health risks. The VRS and K–12 groups’ diurnal cortisol patterns closely resembled each other, while the Other SLI group’s curve closely resembled that of the Non-Interpreter group. Implications for SLI health, education, and job redesign are discussed in the context of the demand control schema.

The use of the text-function in Video Relay Service calls

AbstractThe objective of the current study is to investigate whether and how the text-function offered in the Video Relay Service (VRS) is used and to demonstrate how its use affects the interaction of participants within this setting. The VRS facilitates calls between a person using signed language via a videophone and a person who is speaking via a telephone. An interpreter handles the calls and simultaneously interprets between the users and has direct contact with both users. All participants are physically separated from each other. The data consist of 12 recordings from the regular VRS in Sweden and the method used is Conversation Analysis. The findings show that typed text is used to: 1) conduct a repair; 2) pre-empt problems; 3) recycle text; and 4) overcome language differences.

Signed and spoken interaction at a distance

Abstract In video relay service (VRS), the interpreter is the only person who is directly linked to both users of the service, seeing the signing user of a videophone and hearing the speaking user of a telephone. The interaction is especially challenging at the beginning of the call. In this study, 25 authentic recorded calls from the Swedish VRS were analysed using conversation analysis. The aim of the study was to explore and describe in detail how the interpreters facilitate and strive for progression at the beginning of a VRS call. The study findings show how the interpreters provide information to the signing callers about their progress prior to the call being accepted, how the interpreters manage the spoken interaction with the called party on the telephone and how the interpreters connect the parties to each other. It is also shown how the interpreters work to make the deaf callers master a call. The results of the study enrich our current understanding of calls made via VRS.

The social construction of 101 non-emergency video relay services for deaf signers

How the police prepare for and engage with a citizen who is deaf and uses British Sign Language (BSL) is a national problem. From the perspective of deaf sign language users, the police remain largely inaccessible and unprepared in how to accommodate their linguistic needs. Four regional forces have responded to this issue by introducing a local solution, a bespoke 101 non-emergency video relay service (101VRS). Independent VRS companies function as the auxiliary service, mediating video calls to a 101 helpline. This service was identified as a simple solution that relied on minimal resourcing and input from the police. In using Pinch and Bijker’s social construction of technology (SCOT) framework, we look at competing interpretations of the 101VRS concept and how this has led to a range of intended and unintended solutions and problems (Pinch TJ and Bijker WE (1984) The social construction of facts and artefacts: or how the sociology of science and the sociology of technology might benefit each other. Social Studies of Science 14(3): 399–441). To maintain the investment in improving access to the police, we recommend harmonization of 101VRS nationally, and ongoing consultation with how front-line services can become better prepared at assisting deaf citizens.

Insights Into the Autonomy of Video Relay Interpreters

Insights Into the Autonomy of Video Relay Interpreters Robert Nowicki (bio) Professional Autonomy in Video Relay Service Interpreting. Erica Alley. Gallaudet University Press, 2019. 145 pages. $65.00 (hardcover, e-book). As video relay services (VRS) exit their second decade of existence, the book Professional Autonomy in Video Relay Service Interpreting, by Erica Alley, examines the scope and development of their application in the United States. Alley, who has worked for a VRS company, draws on her own experiences and those of other professionals in the industry to research the positive and negative impacts of VRS. Alley's text examines many kinds of changes but focuses on interpreter autonomy within VRS from the perspective of the interpreters themselves, whom the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) titles "Communication Assistants" (CAs). By situating CA workers within the systems of their employment, Alley asks, is CA autonomy impeded or better managed following the FCC's implementation of new regulations that affect their work? The text begins with a review of how professions, including interpreting, are valued in society. Via a progressive lens, Alley clarifies that CA workers are indeed professionals, whose work is defined and shaped by both social and legal expectations. Alley's chief contribution in this text is her examination of how FCC regulations may control and possibly inhibit CA autonomy in the VRS profession. Throughout the book, the author identifies social and practical outcomes of emerging communication technologies and their impact on the deaf and hearing communities who use VRS. Alley reviews the history and development of the first, bulky TTYs manufactured in the 1960s, then describes the development of text relay services, and finally the advent and rapid expansion of VRS services into the 21st century. The text summarizes the social impacts of interpreting and communication technologies, classified in terms of both positive and negative impacts that affect both the deaf and hearing communities. Alley asserts that the social impact on the deaf community has been particularly profound. VRS has forever changed the ways in which the deaf community sees and relates to itself, as well as the wider hearing world around it. Historically, American Sign Language interpreters developed in response to needs arising at home. Interpreters were often the child of deaf adults who acquired interpreting skills in order to address the shared needs of language and culture within the family; sometimes another member of the community would share this need. The advent of VRS coincided with the growing need to incorporate CAs into a respected profession. CAs are presently and historically an important bridge who link deaf and hearing communities. In addition to a rising professional [End Page 128] class of interpreters, technological development was also a shaping force that changed this dynamic relationship. The history of VRS coevolved with the rise of a professional class of sign language interpreters but also the growing involvement of governmental regulatory bodies like the FCC that fund the industry. As time, law, and the technology changed, the role of the CA became increasingly linked to economic concerns, including the VRS companies' need to generate profit. Alley explicitly links the professional role of the interpreter and regulation by governmental control. She documents cases of VRS corporate rules that were motivated by capitalist, profit-driven motives rather than long-established codes of ethical behavior (p. ix). Alley describes historical parallels between spoken- and sign language interpretation as professions, then argues that as the FCC became the main source of funding for VRS companies employing CA workers, the purpose of sign language interpreters inverted. Where initially the role of the interpreter was to meet the needs of deaf consumers, at present, the role is now more robustly linked to profit incentives. Two consequences of this development are the devaluing of the deaf consumer and the diminishing of the autonomy of the CA. Because the FCC is the main source of VRS operational income (it is also in charge of industry oversight), it wields disproportionate control of VRS operations. Consequently, as Alley describes, the autonomy of the CA becomes at risk, which also increases the potential for decreased quality of service. Another of Alley's compelling arguments is her description of how FCC...

Equal Access to Make Emergency Calls: A Case for Equal Rights for Deaf Citizens in Norway and Sweden

It is stipulated that deaf citizens have equal right to use social services as other citizens. One social service is the access to make an emergency call. Deaf citizens who cannot hear and use a signed language to communicate have to make emergency calls in another way rather than relying on listening and speaking via a telephone. However, the possible ways to call are not the same for deaf citizens in all countries. This commentary shows that there are options dedicated for deaf citizens to make emergency alarms in both Norway and Sweden: via telephone typewriters, Short Message Service, and Video Relay Service, although the design of the respective options differs between the countries. However, it is argued that deaf citizens in Norway do not have equal access to make emergency alarms as other citizens in Norway, whereas the situation for deaf citizens in Sweden may be seen as equal compared to other citizens in Sweden, although there still are limitations.

“Hold the phone!”

AbstractThe initial paradigm of Video Relay Service (VRS) in the United States viewed interpreters as merely conduits for telephone communication; however, this paradigm has begun to shift. Recent research suggests that VRS interpreters are actively involved in coordinating interpreted interaction (Marks 2015;Warnicke and Plejert 2012,2016). This study aims add to the body of VRS research by analyzing features of turn management in ASL-English video relay interpreted calls. These features of turn management are grouped into two categories: techniques and strategies. Techniques denote acts that are performed in addition to the rendition, and strategies refer to instances of turn management that are embedded within renditions. Results show that VRS interpreters employ a variety of turn management techniques and strategies, especially in cases of overlapping talk between Deaf and hearing callers. The findings presented are relevant to the shifting paradigm of VRS interpreter work and training.

“It’s good for them but not so for me”: Inside the sign language interpreting call centre

This paper reports on findings from an international survey of sign language interpreters who have experience of working remotely via video link, either in a video relay service or as a video remote interpreter. The objective of the study was to identify the common issues that confront interpreters when working in these remote environments and ascertain what aspects of interpreting remotely via a video link are working successfully. The international reach of this survey demonstrates how working remotely via video link can be an integral part of bringing about social equality for deaf sign language users; yet according to interpreters who work in these services, ineffective video interpreting policies, poor public awareness and lack of training are identified as areas needing improvement.

Understanding and Not-Understanding: What Do Epistemologies and Ontologies Do in Deaf Worlds?

This article explores the role of understanding and not-understanding in deaf worlds. Using ethnographic data from fieldwork in urban India, ethnographic work by another scholar based in the United States, and an analysis of an advertisement campaign by a video relay service in the United States, the article argues that an effort to “make understanding happen” is a part of deaf socialities in India and elsewhere. Working toward and valuing understanding are components of deaf people’s epistemologies and ontologies. Deaf people’s (signed) language ideologies emphasize the importance of understanding, which helps produce deaf communities of practice. An explicit desire to make understanding happen—on multiple levels—demonstrates the importance of the work that understanding does in deaf worlds.

Turn-organisation in mediated phone interaction using Video Relay Service (VRS)

Technical development has created new arenas of communication for people. One such arena is the Video Relay Service (VRS). The VRS facilitates interaction between people who use visual/gestual sign language on a video phone, and people who use verbal/auditive language on the telephone/mobile phone. The interaction is mediated by a sign language interpreter. The interpreter is the only person in the setting who is directly linked to the others, and all participants are physically separated from each other. The interpreter plays a key role in the interaction, administrating and co-ordinating the talk. In order to do so, the interpreter uses a range of different techniques and strategies. It is the purpose of the current article to describe, analyse and discuss the turn-organisation of the VRS. The article demonstrates how the interpreter is a power figure, who may sanction or not sanction an utterance. The interpreter also manages the turn-taking machinery by means of visible and audible techniques, as well as rendition strategies. The interpreter is not only a mediator, but a co-creator of the interaction; a part that relates dynamically, and makes the participants relate dynamically, to the specific setting of the service.

"You Want What on Your P IZZA !?": Videophone and Video-Relay Service as Potential Influences on the Lexical Standardization of American Sign Language

This pilot study examines whether the increased virtual "mobility" of ASL users via videophone and video-relay services is contributing to the standardization of ASL. In addition, language attitudes are identified and suggested to be influencing the perception of correct versus incorrect standard forms. ASL users around the country have their own regional variant forms of some signs. In the past decade, the spread of video-relay technology and video-relay services (VRS), has allowed Deaf callers to be more connected with other Deaf callers and interpreters across the country. This new technology allows signers the opportunity to be more exposed to regional sign variation. Awareness of regional variation and the skill level of video-relay interpreters are possible factors that may encourage Deaf consumers to limit usage of local or regional variants, replacing them with more standard forms. This study illustrates ways in which the interaction between video-relay interpreters and Deaf consumers across the country may be impacting the structure and use of ASL.

Interpreting in multilingual, multicultural contexts

Seventh Volume in the Studies in Interpretation Series Nineteen international authorities contribute their research and findings to in Multilingual, Multicultural Contexts, probing the complex nature of interpreted interaction involving Deaf and hearing people of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. They also analyze the contextualized interpreting practices and considerations that transpire from this diversity. In three parts, this trenchant collection shows how Deaf and hearing people use language in fluctuating ways to connect with each other. The chapters in Part 1 Expanding Frontiers: ASL-English-Spanish Interpreting in the United States consider sign language interpreting at the border between Baja California and the state; trilingual video relay service (VRS) interpreting; and constructing a valid, reliable trilingual interpreting testing instrument. Part 2 Mediating Indigenous Voices explores how to construct roles in a Maori Deaf trilingual context; considerations for interpreting signed languages of American Indian Communities; and interpreting for indigenous Deaf clients in far north Queensland, Australia. In the final section, Part 3 Globalizing: Interpreting in International Contexts protocols for interpreting in multilingual international conferences are analyzed. The last chapter describes the arduousness of sign language interpreting in multilingual, international settings. It acts as a fitting conclusion to this examination of the challenges to the sociolinguistic repertoire of interpreters mediating across multiplex combinations of culture and language.

Visually Experiencing a Phone Call: The Calculated Consumer Labor Deaf People Perform to Gain Access through Video Relay Service

Feminist scholars have suggested a broader conceptualization of work to include paid and unpaid, visible and invisible labor. Employing this broader conceptualization, this paper examines a new form of service delivery for deaf people, video relay service, as an example of the growing trend in the United States that shifts labor from the service provider to service recipient. The data discussed in this paper were collected from two focus groups with deaf people who shared their experiences with and feelings about video relay service. The findings suggest that although video relay service is preferred to text relay service by deaf people, there are still misunderstandings that occur. And, in responding to those misunderstandings, deaf people must determine whether it is worth their time and energy to confront less than adequate sign language interpreters, hang up and call back in order to get another interpreter, or do nothing.

Psychosocial Variables Related to the Adoption of Video Relay Services Among Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing Employees at the Texas School for the Deaf

Assistive technology (AT) can help individuals with disabilities address a range of barriers and increase community and work participation, yet many devices are abandoned soon after acquisition. Video Relay Service (VRS) is a new communication technology available to people who are deaf or hard of hearing, but little is known about VRS adoption and use by intended consumers. Previous research suggests that psychosocial factors may have significant impact on adoption and use of AT, thus a nonexperimental research design was used to investigate the impact of psychosocial and demographic variables on adoption of VRS by deaf or hard-of-hearing adults. Participating employees of the Texas School for the Deaf completed a demographic based on Rogers's characteristics of adopters of innovations, along with the Psychosocial Impact of Assistive Device Scale (PIADS), a 26-item self-report of psychosocial factors related to independence, well-being, and quality of life. Multiple Discriminant Analysis indicated that variables of Competence, Adaptability, and Self-Esteem were predictive of VRS adoption. Of demographic variables, only Training was highly correlated to Competence and Adaptability. Possible limitations include novelty effect and transferability. Recommendations for future research are included.