Trade Turnover Research Articles

Застосування гравітаційних моделей для аналізу торгівлі між Україною та ЄС

This article presents the application of gravitation models in bilateral trade in agricultural products such as wheat, corn and barley between Ukraine and the European Union. The power of influence of factors related to the process of globalization on the volume of trade flows of agricultural products between countries is shown. These determinants were considered as an alternative to the physical distance between countries in the equation of gravity proposed by Jan Tinbergen. Trade relations between the EU and Ukraine are of interest in influencing the functioning of the entire sector of the economy. The weight of these ties is especially important if we take into account such sensitive markets as, e. g., market of agricultural products. In this case, trade and its results are affected by complex agricultural policies, including diversified support instruments or rules applicable in the EU and in Ukraine. Disparities in the scale of financial support for individual markets and their impact on the level of domestic prices have led to a diversification of the impact on trade turnover. This phenomenon also explains the lack of mutual attractiveness of economies in terms of trade flows. In the traditional gravitation model, the value of trade between any two countries is proportional (all other things being equal) to the GDP gain of these countries and inversely proportional to the distance separating them. In today’s global economy, physical distance between countries is no longer such a significant brake on international trade, and thus the distance in the gravitation model can be understood as the degree of similarity between economies trading with each other.

Торговля России со странами Восточной Азии: сравнительные издержки и потенциал

In this paper it’s demonstrated that over the past decade Russia has sought to diversify its economic ties in favour of East Asian countries as part of the strategy on ‘turning to the East’. Such ties accounted for almost one third of Russia’s foreign trade turnover by 2020. According to the estimates presented in the article, the negative impact of geopolitical factors on Russian foreign trade has affected most countries that border Russia. At the same time, proximity and the presence of a land border have generally had a positive effect on Russian foreign trade, which indicates the opportunity to redistribute the foreign trade flows towards Asia. An assessment of the intensity of Russia’s foreign trade with East Asian countries demonstrates the redundancy of barriers in bilateral interactions. These estimates indicate a greater intensity of trade between the Russian economy and China, as well as the presence of Russia’s significant potential for expanding trade in the case of ‘deep’ integration with East Asian countries by levelling excess costs: with China – by 84%; with Taiwan – by 86%; with the Republic of Korea – by 102%; with ASEAN countries – by 113%; with Japan – by 122%. Due to the higher share of the trade with China in Russia’s foreign trade, rapprochement with the Chinese economy will contribute to generating large volumes of trade turnover between Russia and the outside world. It has been shown in the paper that as Russia approaches the economies of East Asia, reciprocity should be taken into account when reducing bilateral barriers as it may directly affect the choice of Russian strategy for purposes related to increasing mutual trade

Управлінська діяльність в міжнародних компаніях у постковідний період

The global COVID-19 pandemic has caused significant uncertainty in international business. This is due to the fact that the spread of the virus significantly affects the State policy on social restrictions, as well as on the economic behavior of the population, which, in turn, leads to the development of crisis phenomena in business. Therefore, international companies must adopt new corporate behaviors that are in line with proper health protocols, but taking into account the existing significant differences in the activities of these companies. The aim of the study is to identify the features of the transformation of management activities in international companies in the post-COVID period. The study was conducted using methods of theoretical generalization, comparative analysis, synthesis, induction and deduction, which allowed to establish the risk factors of the COVID-19 pandemic for business, as well as their impact on the formation of a management strategy for international companies in the post-COVID period. As a result of the analysis of factual material, approaches to business risks management in connection with the COVID-19 pandemic are summarized. They include the study of macro- and micro-risks from an economic point of view and their impact on consumer behavior along wuth purchasing power. As result of the pandemic, businesses have experienced difficulties owing to a decrease in trade turnover caused by a decrease in consumer demand. It is proved that the easing of social restrictions on economic activity with regard to the danger of transmission of COVID-19 should be interpreted taking into account possible risks for international companies. That is, there is a need to transform risks management in international companies as response to COVID-19. It must be carried out in a disciplined manner and with zero tolerance for any negligence. It is substantiated that the new model of management activities of an international company should help control the spread of COVID-19 and, accordingly, should include three main stages – planning, introducing, and embedding. Future research in this scientific field will be more focused on the development of a risk management instrumentarium, based on the differentiated needs of international companies, which are due to the presence of significant differences in their activities.

ВОЗМОЖНОСТИ РАЗВИТИЯ ТОРГОВО- ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОГО СОТРУДНИЧЕСТВА РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ И КИТАЙСКОЙ НАРОДНОЙ РЕСПУБЛИКИ

Subject/topic. In the context of the intensification of the struggle for leadership between the United States and China, the introduction of anti-Russian sanctions for Russia, the task of strengthening the strategic partnership of the Russian Federation with the People’s Republic of China, expanding trade and economic ties between Russia and China becomes especially urgent. The article analyzes the potential for the development of trade and economic cooperation between the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China in the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025). Despite the coronavirus pandemic, in 2021 Russia’s foreign trade turnover amounted to $798.0 billion (139.3% by 2020), according to the Central Bank, including exports of 494.0 billion (148.2%), imports – $303.9 billion (126.8%), trade balance – $190.1 billion (102.9%). According to the GTU of the PRC, in 2021 the Russian-Chinese trade turnover increased by 35.8% to $146.89 billion compared to 2020. Sanctions against the West make it possible to intensify the process of Russia’s Turn to the East and deepen trade and economic ties with China. Goals/objectives. Assess the prospects for expanding trade and economic ties between Russia and China in the context of US anti-Chinese activities in the confrontation with China and the intensification of the struggle for leadership between the US and China and the imposition of anti-Russian sanctions. Methodology. The paper analyzes the possibilities of expanding trade and economic ties between Russia and China in the period up to 2025. Results. Based on statistical data on the volume of foreign trade between Russia and China in 2021 – 2022. an approach is proposed to analyze the prospects for expanding trade and economic ties between Russia and China in the context of anti-Russian sanctions, anti-Chinese activities of the United States in confrontation with China. Discussion/application. The proposed approach to assessing the prospects for expanding foreign trade between Russia and China in the context of anti-Russian sanctions, anti-Chinese activities of the United States in confrontation with China and the intensification of the struggle for leadership between the United States and China allows us to predict the development of relations between the countries of the «strategic triangle» Russia-China-USA. Conclusions/relevance. The results of an assessment of the prospects for expanding foreign trade between Russia and China in the context of anti-Russian sanctions, the intensification of the struggle for leadership between the United States and China can be used to substantiate recommendations to the leadership of our country. It is concluded that the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China are important strategic partners for each other.

ЕКОНОМІЧНИЙ РОЗВИТОК РЕГОНІВ УКРАЇНИ: МОДЕЛЮВАННЯ НА ПАНЕЛЬНИХ ДАНИХ

At the current stage, the development of the economy of Ukraine is impossible without considering territorial features, in particular, the strengths and weaknesses of the functioning of regional economic systems, favorable and negative trends in their development. The purpose of the investigation is analyzing and modelling the specifics of economic growth, the factors that influence it, in terms of individual regions of Ukraine at a certain point in time, to develop such a model that would be suitable for further forecasting. A vector autoregression model based on longitudinal data of economic development across regions of Ukraine is used for achieving the purpose. The investigation implemented a model of economic development of the regions of Ukraine based on longitudinal or panel data. As factor variables for the model, the retail trade turnover, the volume of sold industrial products, capital investments, the volume of manufactured construction products, the volume of exports, and the number of the employed population were used. The resulting variable is gross regional product. Input information on factor variables and gross regional product was collected across the regions of Ukraine for the period 2000–2020. After conducting a number of tests (causality test and series stationarity test, Durbin-View-Hausman test, and Wald test), the model was specified as a panel autoregressive model with cross-sectional fixed effects. For such a model, it was necessary to apply the estimated generalized least squares method (panel EGLS), which is based on the assumed inequality of variance and therefore provides the opportunity to obtain the best linear estimates. In general, the quality assessment of the built model gives good results, the determination ratio is close to unity. In the regions of Ukraine, 99.69% of changes in the gross regional product are explained by changes in the values of the gross product itself, the volumes of capital investments, realized industrial products and exports, as well as the turnover of retail trade, with a corresponding lag, according to the r squared value. The proposed model of economic development of regions is adequate to reality and can be used for forecasting. Of course, russian war against Ukraine will make adjustments to the development of the economy of the country and its regions in the future. Therefore, the model characterizes the pre-war situation and may inadequately describe the development of economic processes after Ukraine's victory in the war.

Exchange trade current state and development trends

The article is devoted to the investigation of the state and development trends of exchange trading at the current stage. The main aspects characterizing the stock and commodity stock markets in our country and the world have been analyzed. The authors emphasized the concentration of exchange trading in Ukraine on several licensed exchanges, which resulted in a significant increase in the regulated market. The main groups of goods that prevail on the commodity and stock markets of Ukraine are singled out. It was established that the predominant share of trading volume of financial instruments, which was carried out by operators of organized capital markets in Ukraine in 2021, fell on debt securities, and the total trading volume of shares was insignificant. Emphasis is placed on the determining influence of globalization processes on the exchange market development. It is noted that the financial market occupies a dominant place with a share of about 80% of the total exchange turnover in the total world stock exchange trade. Significant revitalization and development of electronic stock trading and constant improvement of stock trading technologies on an innovative basis have been noted. The paper provides an assessment of the current state of development of international exchange trading. An increase in market capitalization, a trend toward growth in the number of concluded contracts in general and for certain types of exchange contracts on commodity and stock exchanges have been noted. The main factors affecting the current state of stock trading development in the world have been systematized. They include market globalization, the development of the latest information technologies, the strengthening of the influence of global financial market participants, the diversification of existing and the emergence of new financial instruments, the unification of regulations for the stock markets, regional structural changes in the activity of the world stock market with increased concentration of stock trading in the Asia-Pacific region.

Исторический портрет якутского купца 1-й гильдии Г.В. Никифорова

The article explores the economic, social and charitable activities of Gavrila Nikiforov, a Yakut merchant of the 1st guild. The aim of the publication is to recreate Nikiforov's historical portrait. Achieving this aim involves a wide use of archival sources, previously unpublished and not introduced into scholarly discourse. The topic has not been sufficiently studied in modern historiography of Siberia; it has scientific relevance and significance. The study of the key issue of the publication is based on the methodology of modernization and chronological, systemic, biographical methods. The author determined Nikiforov's origin, place of birth and initial sources of capital accumulation. The article states that Nikiforov established several enterprises with the aim of organizing fur trade in the northern districts of Yakutsk Oblast in 1900-1910. In 1906 Nikiforov's stores were opened in Verkhoyansk, Ko-lymsk, Bulun, Abye, and Kyusyur. In 1914 the merchant became a contributor to the Northern Commercial and Industrial Partnership, bought a trading business of fur traders and became the owner of one of the largest companies in North-East Siberia with a turnover of 1 million rubles a year. In 1914-1919, Nikiforov's annual turnover in fur trade exceeded 1 million rubles. In Yakutsk, Nikiforov conducted wholesale and retail trade in fur, groceries and consumer goods from stores. Nikiforov's supplies of furs to European and North American markets in 1914-1917 amounted to 800 thousand rubles a year. Nikiforov's public education activity was expressed in the construction and maintenance of schools for children, a museum, a library, and financial assistance to residents in paying taxes. During the First World War, Nikiforov was engaged in the procurement and dispatch of warm fur products to the front. Nikiforov enjoyed authority among the local population, was repeatedly elected councilor of the Yakutsk City Council, and was a member of charitable organizations. The merchant took part in meetings under Yakut Governor Ivan Kraft and decided on important strategic issues. In 1918-1919, Nikiforov organized the supply of needy population of Yakutsk Oblast with consumer goods and food products for 400 thousand rubles. For his services, he had state awards. He was an honorary “foreigner” of East-Kangalassky ulus of Yakutsk Oblast. The article defines the personal and business qualities of the Yakut merchant. The main conclusion of the article is that the reconstruction of Nikiforov's historical portrait allowed expanding the previously existing ideas about his contribution to the socioeconomic development of Yakutsk Oblast during the period of modernization of the Russian economy.

ԵԱՏՄ թվային տնտեսության ռազմավարության վերլուծությունը / Analysis of the Strategy of the EEU Digital Economy

In 2022, it is impossible to imagine any country or organization that can establish international relations without a digital economy. The creation of the EEU digital economy is based on economic cooperation and development between the member states. From a strategic point of view, the "digital economy" model will have the greatest impact on the industrial development of countries, the increase of trade turnover, the organization and management of various business processes, the creation of digital infrastructure, and the construction of new economic models based on them. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to study and analyze the strategy of the "Digital Economy", examine the digital dividends underlying the strategy, as well as to reveal the impact of the "Digital Economy" on the "employment growth" of the country and analyze the forecasts.

Current legal issues of investments in the sphere of military-technical cooperation

The article is devoted to studying the pressing legal questions of investments, transferring of licenses to a foreign state to manufacture Russian military products, joint ventures and acquisition of shares in such ventures in a foreign state, analysis of legal regime of investment services in the sphere of military-technical cooperation. The article pays a particular attention to the scope of terms “investment” and “investment service” because of the different administrative law regimes regarding their civilian and foreign trade turnover established by the state

ЗОВНІШНЯ ТОРГІВЛЯ ПОСЛУГАМИ ІСЛАНДІЇ: ВПЛИВ ПАНДЕМІЇ COVID-19

The article is devoted to the study of the structure of Iceland’s foreign trade in services in the period before, during and after the global crisis caused by the coronavirus pandemic to highlight the key characteristics that need to be taken into account when building a policy for the development of the national economy. The COVID-19 pandemic has shown that sudden and strong external circumstances can make adjustments to the world economy, especially such a delicate part of it as international trade in services. Therefore, the analysis of this impact on the economy of the country, a significant share of foreign trade turnover of which are services, cannot be doubted. Quantitative and comparative analysis methods were used to characterize the dynamics of Iceland’s foreign trade indicators, such as exports, imports and balances in general, and in terms of goods and in terms of services in particular, as well as shares of goods and services in the country’s exports and imports. In addition, these methods were used to find out absolute and relative changes in the structure of foreign trade in services in 2019, 2020 and 2021. And to explain the possible reasons for these changes, the method of abstract logical analysis was also used. Based on the conducted research, conclusions were made about the effectiveness of the structure of foreign trade of Iceland, as well as the expediency of orienting a national economy to the provision of one or two, or three interrelated types of services. In the study process, bar-line combination charts were used to display the dynamics of Iceland’s exports, imports and foreign trade balances in general, and in terms of goods and in terms of services in particular; line charts – to display the dynamics of shares of goods and services in the country’s exports and imports; a table – to compare the structure of Iceland’s foreign trade in services in terms of value (in billions of ISK) and relative terms (as a part of the whole, in percentages) in 2013 and 2019-2021. This study will allow us to take a fresh look at the issue of the formation of the structure of the national economy and take into account the need for diversification and reasonable balancing of the country’s foreign trade activities.

Development of international trade of ukraine in crisis conditions

It is calculated and analyzed the dynamics of international trade indicators of Ukraine for the period 2017–2021 (foreign trade turnover, balance of trade balance, net trade index, degree of dependence of the country on international trade, share of exports in GDP, share of exports of goods and services in foreign trade turnover, indicators of export, import and foreign trade quotas, as well as corresponding coverage ratios) in the article. It was established that despite the crisis conditions, the realization of the domestic foreign trade potential for the period 2017–2021 improved, which is a positive trend. The extent of Ukraine's dependence on international trade was determined, which indicates its transition from the category of «highly dependent countries» to the category of «moderately dependent countries». It is noted that Ukraine's exports are growing faster than imports, and the country's high dependence on imports is a negative factor (as evidenced by the negative trade balance during 2017–2020). A high degree of openness of the national economy and an increase in the realization of its export potential have been established, as evidenced by the volume of foreign trade and export quotas. It was noted that the negative impact of the covid-19 coronavirus pandemic on the market situation in 2020 was affected by a decrease in the volume of foreign trade turnover. A SWOT analysis was conducted, on the basis of which the strategy for the further development of Ukraine's international trade in the context of the crisis was substantiated and practical proposals for its implementation were provided. Based on the results of calculations, it was established that the weaknesses (deficiencies) of Ukraine's international trade outweigh its strengths. And the level of the foreign trade component of our country's economic security is negative due to the predominance of «threats» over «opportunities» for development. In order to ensure the development of Ukraine's international trade in the crisis, it is proposed to use the «mini-mini» strategy, which is aimed at minimizing its «weak» positions and avoiding external «threats» to development. It was found that despite the crisis phenomena, Ukraine's international trade has great development potential, which it is trying to realize despite global challenges and crises.

China-Russia relations, their prospects and problems in the sphere of trade turnover

China-Russia relations, their prospects and problems in the sphere of trade turnover

ПОДХОД К РАЗВИТИЮ МЕЖДУНАРОДНОЙ ТОРГОВЛИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ СО СТРАНАМИ-ПАРТНЕРАМИ ЧЕРЕЗ МЕХАНИЗМ МНОГОСТОРОННЕГО КЛИРИНГА (Часть I)

This article considers the possibility of implementing clearing mechanism in international settlements with partner states of the Russian Federation aimed at developing external trade under toughened anti-Russian sanctions. We propose a method of defining the unit of account (clearing currency) based on the equation of exchange within the quantity theory of money using universally acknowledged indicators provided by the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the International Trade Centre. In the first part of the article, we analyze the progress in the theoretical thought on the equation of exchange and contributions of K. Marx, S. Newcomb, I. Fisher and M. Friedman to unveiling (inter)dependencies between quantity of money and prices in an economy. In the second part of the article, we describe the method of caclulating the clearing currency values and exchange rates of national currencies to the unit of account and to each other using national shares in mutual trade turnover as the weights. Calculations for five groups of 25 partner countries of the Russian Federation are presented as examples, including member states of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), BRICS, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) as well as BRICS candidates and SCO observer states and dialogue partners.

Актуализация кубинской модели социально-экономического развития и ее влияние на национальную внешнюю политику

The ‘actualization’ of the Cuban social and economic model is a set of measures taken by the Cuban government to improve the country's socio-economic situation by attracting foreign capital and developing the private sector of the economy. These reforms are unprecedented in the history of socialist Cuba, since the country's leadership has never resorted to such comprehensive and profound reforms before. These measures include partial revision of tenets of Cuban statehood that previously seemed immutable. Such metamorphoses executed by Havana, despite their domestic political nature, have had a significant impact on the country's foreign policy, its bilateral relations with key world actors, and have changed Cuba's role and status both at the global and regional levels. ‘Actualization’ was a well-timed response of the Cuban government to the revision of the foundations of U.S. regional policy in Latin America under B. Obama, which subsequently allowed the parties to begin the so-called ‘Cuban thaw’ in bilateral relations. The transformation affected relations between Havana and the European Union, which were institutionalized due to the Political Dialogue and Cooperation Agreement and turned the EU into Caribbean state’s important investment and trade partner. China and countries of Latin America have also felt the effects of Cuba's socio-economic transformation. The evolution of Russian-Cuban relations which have undergone significant changes over the past two decades deserves particular attention in the context of ‘actualization’. A fold increase in bilateral trade turnover and the development of political dialogue between Moscow and Havana are markers of positive dynamics. However, it cannot be claimed that the Russian side has totally benefited from the Cuban socio-economic reforms, given the unique potential that Russia has in regard to Cuba.

ПРІОРИТЕТИ ТОРГОВЕЛЬНОГО СПІВРОБІТНИЦТВА УКРАЇНИ З ЄС

The article analyzes the alternatives of Ukraine’s trade cooperation with the EU, examines the current state and development trends of Ukraine’s trade and economic cooperation with the EU in modern conditions of the development of global economic processes. In the current conditions of development of globalization and integration of the world economy, Ukraine, as a large European state with high economic potential, cannot remain aloof from world processes. Accordingly, Ukraine’s entry into the world economic community is a significant priority for the development of our state. Relations with the European Union are of particular importance for Ukraine when determining its own prospects and reserves for increasing the level of international trade contacts and the level of competitiveness of the domestic economy on the world market. Cooperation with the European Union gives an invaluable result, which is obvious. These are access to world markets, information technologies, and the expansion of participation in international investment processes, and educational assistance programs, improvement of transport and telecommunication systems. Today, the EU is the most important source of investments that bring not only financial resources to the economy, but also international experience in corporate management, encouraging companies to implement international standards of quality, accounting, etc. Currently, the EU is the largest trade partner of Ukraine, which accounts for almost a third of the total national foreign trade turnover. In order to achieve the set objectives in the field of deepening trade cooperation of Ukraine with the countries of the European Union, it is necessary to intensify the negotiation processes for concluding free trade agreements between Ukraine and a number of countries of the world and separate groups of states,to carry out consistent work on the development of draft free trade agreements, holding relevant consultations and negotiations. New factors of influence that will operate in the space of the free trade zone provide for the organization of the development of an early concept of the specialization of the Ukrainian economy in the international division of labor, taking into account the trends and projected dynamics of the foreign trade balance of Ukraine (by industries, countries, individual product groups),as well as early scenarios for the optimization of foreign trade. It is appropriate to identify industries where the domestic manufac- turer is able to obtain additional long-term benefits from the expansion of sales markets, or on the contrary, it may turn out to be uncompetitive at all. The European Union provides an opportunity to stimulate the trade development of Ukraine through the export of Ukrainian goods and services.

Геоэкономические риски регионов российской Балтики в условиях обостряющейся геополитической обстановки

This article is a conceptual theoretical-empirical study of the geopolitical risks the Baltic Russian regions have faced amid the deteriorating geopolitical situation observed since 2014. The Baltic Russian regions are in a vulnerable position because of their geographical vicinity to EU countries, with which they share common borders, and the dramatically worsening military and political situation. To analyse geoeconomic risks, the author employed an earlier proposed methodology, which has been tested in Russia and abroad. Four types of geoeconomic risks are examined: spatial, economic, socio-demographic, national geopolitical and regional geopolitical. Overall, five levels of geopolitical risks can be distinguished. The contribution sets out to provide a conceptual picture of the geoeconomic risks which the Baltic Russian territories — St Petersburg, the Republic of Karelia and the Leningrad, Kaliningrad, Novgorod, Pskov and Murmansk regions faced in 2014—2021 as the geopolitical situation changed for the worse in the wake of the Ukraine political crisis (2013—2014). The objectives of the study included selecting economic, social and international trade indicators and analytics matching each type of the geoeconomic risks. To identify the geo-economic risks of the selected regions, three basic indicators are considered — population, GRP, foreign trade turnover, and changes in other indicators for 2014—2021 were tracked. Eighteen risks divided into four types were explored for the Baltic Russian regions. The geoeconomic risks were grouped into two categories: spatial/geopolitical and economic/socio-demographic. A preliminary assessment of the regional risks was obtained using a methodology proposed by the author. The risks in the spatial/geopolitical category are substantial for the Kaliningrad region, whilst the Pskov region and Karelia proved to be most susceptible to the economic/socio-demographic risks.

Издержки и потенциал торгово-экономических взаимодействий между Россией и мегаформатами Азиатско-Тихоокеанского региона

The article presents the results of the decomposition of comprehensive trade costs, which make it possible to estimate the costs and potential of trade turnover for the «deep» integration scenario between Russia and countries included in the Asia-Pacific mega-regional trade agreements – RCEP and CPTPP. It is shown that Russia has significantly increased trade with the Asia-Pacific countries, and it has the potential to expand the scale of trade by reducing various barriers. On the basis of D. Novy’s index approach, the comprehensive costs of trade between Russia and RCEP / CPTPP were decomposed into non-tariff barriers and into tariff and transport costs. It was found that non-tariff barriers were the main factor hindering trade between Russia and RCEP / CPTPP. Based on a comparison with the estimates of non-tariff barriers obtained for the Union State of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus, a possible reduction in such costs in the interaction of the Russia with the RCEP / CPTPP countries has been determined. The assessment showed that if the scenario of «deep» integration between Russia and RCEP / CPTPP is implemented, non-tariff barriers could be reduced by almost 2 times in the interaction of the Russian economy with the RCEP, and with the CPTPP – by almost 2.5 times. As a result, if this scenario were implemented, mutual trade could increase by 40 p. p. and more than 60 p. p. respectively. It is assumed that the continuation of the sanctions of key world economies initiated this year and the self-restrictions of foreign companies in relation to the Russian economy could slow down the implementation of the strategy of geographical diversification of Russian exports and Russia’s full inclusion in the integration processes in the Asia-Pacific region in the long term

ПОИСКОВАЯ ОПТИМИЗАЦИЯ КОММЕРЧЕСКИХ ВЕБ-РЕСУРСОВ КАК СОСТАВНАЯ ЧАСТЬ ИНТЕРНЕТ‑МАРКЕТИНГА

With the active growth of Internet trade turnover, companies, in order to maintain their competitiveness, it becomes necessary to promote their business and the goods sold or services provided on the Internet. The modern concept of Internet marketing is as customer-oriented as possible. One of the most effective tools of Internet marketing is search engine optimization of web resources. Search engine optimization is a set of measures, the implementation of which allows you to improve the ranking of a site in search engines. The article describes the goals, objectives and sequence of search engine optimization of a web resource as an integral part of Internet marketing.

Purchase and sale and prohibition of uncertainty (gharar) in the Islamic tradition

The article deals with the requirements of Islamic law to the classical contract of sale. The authors conclude that the prescriptions regarding the conclusion of a contract of sale, the object of sale and price formation are largely explained by the attraction of Islam to fairness in trade. Analyzing the object of sale, the authors refer to the concept of property al-mal and its forms — al-‘ayn property and al-dayn property. They insist that al-dayn is not an analogue of “obligation”, “debt” or “right of claim” in the civilian or common law’s traditions, but a unique concept of Islamic law, literally meaning “property-in-the-future”. Considering limitations to sale of aldayn property, this article presents the approaches of madhhabs regarding the admissibility of and conditions for the sale and purchase of bay’ al-dayn. The basic tool of Islamic law on its way to a sustainable trade turnover is the prohibition of transactions involving excessive uncertainty gharar. The authors reveal the meaning of this concept, which has been widely discussed among Muslim scholars, and distinguish the notion of gharar from the notions of risk and gambling maysīr. Application of gharar prohibition to the contract of sale has its own characteristics and gharar becomes key point in deciding whether it is admissible to sell a non-existent thing — bai‘ al-ma‘dum and sell a thing that is not available for physical inspection at the time of the transaction — bai‘ al-ghayb. In this context, the authors pay attention to the distance sale of goods by preliminary inspection, by sample and by description. Islamic law offers an effective mechanism for removing the uncertainty gharar from the contract of sale, giving the buyer the right of khiyar al-ru’yah, which is the right to unilaterally withdraw from the contract at the moment of physical inspection of the goods.

Про одну задачу коінтеграції торговельних зв’язків України, Азербайджану та Грузії

In this article, the integration processes between Azerbaijan, Ukraine and Georgia are considered through the indicators of integratedness of Azerbaijan’s GDP and the trade turnover of this country with the other two. All the time series considered are non-stationary. Therefore, the construction of a model of correlation-regression analysis will lead to the obtainment of shifted estimates of the coefficients. So, there are problems of correct modeling of the corresponding time series, the components of which lead to a deviation from stationarity. The publication uses an econometric integration methodology for modeling the relationship between the non-stationary time series. The modeling correctly used econometric methods, all the necessary step-by-step statistical procedures to determine the order of integration of the non-stationary time series – to identify and evaluate the parameters of the model and to check its adequacy and accuracy of both the short-term and the long-term forecast values using the tools of Excel and the EViews 8 package. An analysis of empirical tests for their deviation from the trend was carried out. The speeds of elimination of the imbalance and the visible convergences of the corrective system from the equilibrium trajectory are determined. A dynamic model of the long-term equilibrium is built, allowing to qualitatively forecast the state of foreign trade integration of the three countries under consideration and analyze the openness of the Azerbaijani economy in the regional aspect. As a result of the constructed model, econometric substantiated recommendations have been developed that allow for a dynamic analysis of effective State regulation of export-import operations between these countries to balance mutual trade.