Tin Chloride Research Articles

Elaboration, characterization and applications of SnO2, 2 %Gd-SnO2 and 2 %Gd-9 %F-SnO2 thin films for the photocatalytic degradation of MB by USP method

• An investigation on SnO 2 , 2 %Gd-SnO 2 and 2 %Gd-9 %F-SnO 2 thin films have been synthesized by USP method. • Effect of doping and co-doping on the structrales, microdtructurales, optical and electrical properties of SnO 2 thin films. • The development of the parameters: lattice parameters, average crystalline sizes, Seeback coefficient and energy gap with doping and co-doping are discussif. • The photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue was studied using 2 %Gd-SnO 2 and 2 %Gd-9 %F-SnO 2 thin films. In this study, SnO 2 , 2 %Gd-SnO 2 , and 2 %Gd-9 %F-SnO 2 films were grown from tin chloride solutions by the ultrasonic spray technique on ordinary microscope glass substrates heated to a fixed temperature of 450 °C for photocatalytic application. The microstructural characterization of the thin films obtained was performed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), SEM, EDAX, and Infrared Spectroscopy (IR). The optical properties of thin films were studied by UV–Visible spectroscopy. To examine the electrical properties, we use the four-point method, the Seebeck effect and the Mott Shottky analysis. X-ray difraction reveals the formation of the routile phase of SnO 2 in all thin films with average crystallite size estimated in the range of 24–62 nm. The co-doping in (Gd-F) permitted an improvement of the thermoelectric properties of SnO 2 . Moreover, we have demonstrated that an increase in grain size allows toimprove the Seebeck coefficient, to increase the electrical conductivity, on the other hand the doping in (Gd), presents a decrease in the size of the crystallites, which improves the degradation of methyl blue. The UV–Visible spectra of optical transmission of the layers show that the pure, doped and co-doped SnO2 films are of good quality with a transmittance of 73–83% in the visible and have an optical gap evaluated between 3.89, 3.98 and 3.99 eV respectively.

Electrodeposition of Ni–Sn alloy from ethylene glycol electrolyte. Part 2. Reactions in the bulk electrolyte

ABSTRACT Previously, the authors developed a stable citrate ethylene glycol (EG) electrolyte providing the electrodeposition of Ni–Sn alloy at quite high rate, current efficiency and nickel content in the alloy. In this study a complexation in the solution containing nickel and tin(II) chlorides, and citric acid was studied. IR spectroscopy data have shown the availability of Ni(EG)2Cl2 and Sn(EG)Cl2 complex compounds in the EG solution. At the addition of citric acid complexation of Ni(II) and Sn(II) with dihydrocitrate ions occurs. Binding of Sn(II) ions into complex compounds like Sn(EG)(H2Cit)2 promotes regulation of Ni(II) and Sn(II) reduction rates, and ensures the increased nickel quota in the alloy and the stability of electrolyte against Sn(II) to Sn(IV) oxidation. The rate of coating deposition strongly depends on the electrical conductivity of the EG solution and rises with an increase in the temperature and concentration of metal halide crystalline hydrates.

Synthesis and characterization of solution processed p-SnS and n-SnS2 thin films: Effect of starting chemicals

This study represents the investigation of earth-abundant and non-toxic SnS absorber and SnS2 buffer layer materials by using a green solution process. Some physical properties of prepared thin films were investigated for different starting chemicals and molar ratios of Sn/S. Here, by using different starting chemicals such as tin (II) 2-ethylhexanoate and tin (II) chloride dihydrate, we observed that the formation of p-SnS and n-SnS2 phases can be simply controlled. All the SnS films obtained by the tin (II) 2-ethylhexanoate showed p-type conductivity. Moreover, it has been observed that an n-type SnS2 thin film can be produced by using tin (II) chloride dihydrate as the starting chemical instead of tin (II) 2-ethylhexanoate. According to the Hall effect measurement results, the resistivity of the p-type films obtained with both starting chemicals is in the order of 106 Ωcm. The resistivity of films with n-type properties drops to the order of 101 Ωcm. The I–V characteristic of the n-SnS2/p-SnS bilayer exhibits the p-n heterojunction diode characteristic. This study paves the way for solution processed SnS and SnS2 thin films as a potential absorber and buffer layer to be used in photovoltaic devices.

Reactions of α-Phenylglyoxylic Acids with ortho-Functionalized Anilines in Deep Eutectic Solvents: Selective Syntheses of 3-Aryl-2H-benzo[b][1,4]oxazin-2-ones, 2-Arylbenzothiazoles, and 3-Arylquinoxalin-2(1H)-ones

Abstractα-Phenylglyoxylic acid is a novel cyclization reagent. In this study, three cyclization products were synthesized by the reaction of α-phenylglyoxylic acids with ortho-functionalized anilines in deep eutectic solvents (DES). The five-membered-ring-formation products, the 2-arylbenzothiazoles, with a highest yield of 88%, were obtained by the reaction between 0.30 mmol of an o-aminothiophenol and 0.30 mmol of an α-phenylglyoxylic acid in choline chloride (ChCl)/d-(–)-tartaric acid DES at 60 °C for 0.5 h. The six-membered-ring-formation products, 3-aryl-2H-benzo[b][1,4]oxazin-2-one derivatives, were obtained in yields up to 99% by the reaction between 0.30 mmol of an o-aminophenol and 0.60 mmol of an α-phenylglyoxylic acid in ChCl/urea DES at 80 °C for 2.0 h. In the reaction between 0.30 mmol of o-phenylenediamine and 0.45 mmol of an α-phenylglyoxylic acid in ChCl/anhydrous tin(II) chloride DES at 70 °C for 1.5 h, the six-membered-ring-formation products, 3-arylquinoxalin-2(1H)-one derivatives, were synthesized, with a highest yield of 96%. This cyclization reaction occurred without the addition of other catalysts, and the title compounds were obtained with good yields under mild conditions.

Protective effect of tin chloride on rhabdomyolysis-induced acute kidney injury in rats.

The heme component of myoglobin plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of rhabdomyolysis-associated acute kidney injury (RM-AKI). Heme oxiganenase-1 (HO-1) is the rate-limiting enzyme of heme catabolism, and its metabolites, iron, biliverdin, and carbon monoxide, have antioxidant properties. Tin chloride (SnCl2) is a kidney specific HO-1 inducer. In this study, we examined whether the induction of HO-1 in the kidney by SnCl₂ pretreatment ameliorates RM-AKI in rats and if the effect is due to the degradation of excess renal free heme. We developed an RM-AKI rat (male Sprague-Dawley rats) model by injecting glycerol (Gly) in the hind limbs. RM-AKI rats were pretreated with saline or SnCl₂ or additional SnMP (tin mesoporphyrin, a specific HO inhibitor) followed by Gly treatment. Serum blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine (Crea) were measured as indicators of renal function. Renal free heme level was assessed based on the levels of δ-aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS1), a heme biosynthetic enzyme, and nuclear BTB and CNC homology 1 (Bach1), an inhibitory transcription factor of HO-1. Elevated free heme levels lead to decreases in ALAS1 and nuclear Bach1. After 24 h of Gly injection, serum BUN and Crea levels in saline-pretreated rats were significantly higher than those in untreated control rats. In contrast, SnCl₂-pretreated rats showed no significant increase in the indices. However, additional treatment of SnMP abolished the beneficial effect of SnCl₂. Renal ALAS1 mRNA levels and renal nuclear Bach1 protein levels in the saline pretreated rats were significantly lower than those in control rats 3 h after Gly injection. In contrast, the levels in SnCl₂-pretreated rats were not altered. The findings indicate that SnCl2 pretreatment confers protection against RM-AKI by virtue of HO-1 induction in the renal system, at least in part through excess free heme degradation.

Atomically dispersed Sn incorporated into carbon matrix for stable electrochemical lithium storage

Although possessing a high specific capacity, the practical implementation of SnO2 nanoparticles as a promising anode for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is hampered by their poor cyclability. This work demonstrates that incorporating single atomic Sn (SASn) species into a carbon matrix can address this issue effectively. The SASn/C composite was synthesized via polymerization of formaldehyde and 3-aminophenol in the presence of Tin(II) chloride, followed by pyrolysis. The SASn atoms were homogeneously dispersed in the carbon matrix. Each Sn atom coordinated with two O and two C atoms, forming the Sn-O-C and Sn-C bonds, providing channels for fast electron/ion transfer and boosting electrochemical kinetics. The SASn/C anode exhibited unique lithium storage behaviors, enhanced lithium storage capability, and excellent cyclic stability with a capacity fading rate of 0.0031% per cycle at 1000 mA g−1 after 7000 cycles. Density functional theory calculations reveal that one SASn atom can adsorb three Li+ ions at the fully discharged state during the discharging process. Subsequently, the Li+ ions are directly desorbed from the SASn atom, which is different from the traditional multi-step de-alloying process. This facile strategy represents a significant advancement in developing high-performance Sn-based anode materials for LIBs.

Synthesis of tin nanoparticles on Ketjen Black in ionic liquid and water for the hydrogen evolution reaction

Tin nanoparticles (Sn-NPs) embedded in Ketjen Black carbon (KB) were synthesized from anhydrous tin(II) chloride by reduction with sodium borohydride in the presence of different imidazolium based ionic liquids (ILs) or water and tested towards the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) in electrocatalytic water splitting. Transmission and scanning electron microscopy showed the formation of well distributed Sn-NPs on KB with average sizes of 49 ± 25 to 96 ± 49 nm depending on the IL or water medium. Porosity was investigated by nitrogen sorption measurements indicating the preservation of the mesoporous structure of KB with BET surface areas in the range of 276 to 568 m2 g−1 and total pore volumes of 0.38 to 0.75 cm3 g−1. The metal content of the Sn/KB composites was determined by thermogravimetric analysis to be between 31 and 46 wt%. Sn/KB synthesized in HCl/H2O showed a better performance towards HER with an overpotential of 136 mV compared to the overpotential of the other samples synthesized in IL ranging between 205 and 319 mV. Tafel analysis yielded a slope of 120 mV dec−1 and a low charge transfer resistance confirmed the good performance of Sn/KB synthesized in HCl/H2O. After stability test the sample synthesized in the IL [HO-EMIm][BF4] demonstrated an improved performance with an overpotential of 166 mV.

Determination of the activation parameters for the ring-opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone initiated by Sn(II) and Zn(II) chlorides using the fast technique of DSC

The kinetics of the ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of ε-caprolactone (ε-CL) initiated by 1.0 mol% of tin(II) chloride (SnCl2) and zinc(II) chloride (ZnCl2) was completely investigated by the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) technique. The fast method to determine the activation parameters such as activation enthalpy (∆H≠) and activation entropy (∆S≠) was successfully developed basing on the transition state theory and isoconversional method. From Friedman isoconversional method, the values of activation energy (Ea) for the ROP of ε-CL initiated by SnCl2 (36.2 ± 1.5 to 40.8 ± 1.5 kJ/mol) were lower than ZnCl2 (51.9 ± 2.8 to 62.3 ± 2.8 kJ/mol). From Starink isoconversional method, the Ea values for the ROP of ε-CL initiated by SnCl2 (32.3 ± 1.1 to 35.8 ± 1.1 kJ/mol) were also lower than ZnCl2 (59.2 ± 0.8 to 62.1 ± 0.8 kJ/mol). By using the compensation parameters, the reconstructed monomer conversion function (f(α)) was fitted with the Avrami-Erofeev nucleation model (A2, f(α) = 2(1-α)[-ln(1-α)]1/2). The values of frequency factor (A) for the ROP of ε-CL with SnCl2 and ZnCl2 were 4.3 × 103to 1.6 × 104 min−1 and 2.1 × 105 to 5.3 × 105 min−1, respectively. From the developed rate equation, the values of ∆H≠ and ∆S≠ could be conveniently determined from dynamic heating. The obtained ∆H≠ values for the ROP of ε-CL initiated by SnCl2 and ZnCl2 were similar to the Ea values. The ∆S≠ values for the transition state of the ROP of ε-CL initiated by SnCl2 (-152.0 to -161.7 J/mol.K) were lower than ZnCl2 (-129.6 to -153.1 J/mol.K). The kinetics and the stability of transition state information demonstrated that the reactivity of SnCl2 in the ROP of ε-CL was higher than ZnCl2. The mechanism of the ROP of ε-CL with SnCl2 and ZnCl2 was proposed through a classical coordination-insertion mechanism. From poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) synthesis via solvent-free polymerization, SnCl2 acted as the highly effective initiator than ZnCl2. The highest number average molecular weight (Mn) of PCLs obtained from the SnCl2 and ZnCl2 initiator were 1.8 × 105 g/mol and 3.6 × 104 g/mol, respectively. The effectiveness of the slow ZnCl2 initiator in the production of high molecular weight and %yield of PCL could be improved by increasing the synthesis temperature. These SnCl2 and ZnCl2 compounds acted as a powerful initiator for the synthesis of PCL. The obtained results from this work were useful for understanding the transition state formulation in the ROP of other cyclic esters with various initiating systems that still in our attention and would be described in our future work.

Effect of Complexing Agent on The Morphology and Corrosion Effect of Cu-Sn-Zn Ternary Alloy via Electroplating

Copper-tin-zinc (Cu-Sn-Zn) ternary alloy coatings was successfully deposited from a less hazardous electrolyte containing copper (II) chloride, tin (II) chloride, zinc chloride, sodium hypophosphite and complexing agent. In this work, the impact of different complexing agent on morphology, chemical composition, current efficiency, microhardness, and corrosion rate were investigated by method of SEM equipped with EDX spectroscopy, weight gain measurements, XRD, Vickers microhardness test and potentiodynamic polarization measurement, respectively. It was discovered that, Cu-Sn-Zn alloys prepared using sodium formate shows the highest microhardness value. It is also can be concluded that, complexing agent have a significant impact on the appearance and the surface morphology of the Cu-Sn-Zn alloy electrodeposits.

Preparation and characterization of silver self-metallization on polyimide

In this work, silver (Ag) self-metallization on a polyimide (PI) film was prepared through autocatalytic plating. PI films were prepared through the solution casting method, followed by etching with potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution, sensitization with tin chloride (SnCl2), and the use of palladium chloride (PdCl2) to activate the surface of PI. Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) showed the highest peak in the (Ag) region and confirmed the presence of AgNPs. The diffraction peaks at 2θ = 38.2°, 44.5°, 64.6°, and 78.2° represented the 111, 200, 220, and 311 planes of Ag, respectively. The FT–IR analysis for Ag-metalized PI showed that the =C-O-C= stretching absorption bands at 1735 cm−1 had no changes in position, only a significant difference in peak size at the deposition time increase. The formation of new bands (N–H stretching absorption band and N–C stretching band) assigned at 2325 and 955 cm−1 indicated strong coordination between N atoms and silver nanoparticles. The C–C stretching and = C–H plane vibration band at 1488 and 1117 cm−1 are shifted to 1413 and 1112 cm−1, indicating the silver nanoparticles' interaction with the polymer backbone. The thermal stability of PI- and Ag-metalized PI films at various deposition times (5, 10, and 15 min) was examined using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). For PI, T0, T5, T10, and Tmax were observed to be 388°C, 402°C, 414°C, and 515°C, respectively. When the deposition time increased, the thermal stability increased. As a function of the deposition, the thickness and surface morphology of the copper layer on the PI films were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

Tin Oxide/Nitrogen‐Doped Graphene Quantum Dots Composite Nanotubes: An Efficient Electrode for Supercapacitors

Tin oxide (SnO2) and nitrogen‐doped graphene quantum dots (N‐GQDs) composite nanotubes (SnO2/N‐GQD NTs) were fabricated by the electrospinning technique and followed by the thermal annealing method for the application in supercapacitor as an electrode. SnO2/N‐GQD NTs with different ratio of N‐GQDs were prepared by adding different ratios of N‐GQDs along with tin chloride during the electrospinning process. The prepared composite's structure and morphological properties were characterized by using different techniques like XRD, FE‐SEM, TEM, and XPS. The supercapacitor performance of the SnO2/N‐GQD NTs composite was analyzed by the electrochemical studies such as cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic charge‐discharge (GCD) measurement in 2 M KOH solution as electrolyte. The electrochemical analyses of SnO2/N‐GQD NTs was tested at different scan rates and current densities. SnO2/N‐GQD NTs prepared using 3 wt.% of N‐GQDs showed an excellent capacity retention even after 5000 GCD cycles and exhibited a maximum specific capacitance of 420 mF g-1 at a current density of 8 mA cm-2 in comparison to pure SnO2 NTs (230 mF cm-2).

Synthesis, Crystal Structure, Spectroscopic and Hirshfeld Surface Study of a New Functionalized Α-Hydroxyphosphonate Complex of Tin (IV) Chloride

Synthesis, Crystal Structure, Spectroscopic and Hirshfeld Surface Study of a New Functionalized Α-Hydroxyphosphonate Complex of Tin (IV) Chloride

Investigation on L-Valinium tin chloride single crystal

Tin crystalline material with different sizes and shapes was given more attention due to their interesting properties and applications. In the present work we have grown L-Valinium tin chloride single crystals by slow evaporation method. The cell parameters were determined by the X-ray diffraction analysis. Optical behaviour was examined by UV–Vis-NIR spectral studies. FT-IR studies reveal the functional groups present in the material. The magnetic properties of the crystal were determined at room temperature using vibrating sample magnetometer. Photoluminescence studies were also done. The hardness of the material was calculated for different loads. The dielectric nature of the material was also analysed.

Effect of growth temperature on the physical properties of Spray pyrolysis deposited CZTS films

Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) functional thin films have been successfully synthesized using the spray pyrolysis method in a single deposition process and under atmospheric pressure. The samples have been deposited on glass substrates under different growth temperatures ranging from 350 °C to 450 °C. The solution has been prepared using Copper chloride dihydrate, Zinc chloride, Tin chloride dihydrate, and Thiourea as Copper, Zinc, Tin and Sulfur sources respectively. The structural, optical, morphological and electrical properties of CZTS films have been investigated. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectroscopy have confirmed the kesterite structure of all samples without any secondary phase. The surface morphology and topography of the samples have been examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Data from UV–Vis spectroscopy analysis and Hall effect measurement showed that CZTS films elaborated at 400 °C have an optimum band gap (Eg = 1.5 eV), low resistivity (1.7239 × 10−2 Ω.cm), and high conductivity (58.00 (Ω.cm)−1).

Study on the effect of temperature on electrical parameters of lead free methylammonium tin halide based Perovskite Schottky Devices

Perovskite appears to be the most promising candidate for thin-film optoelectronic devices due to its excellent optoelectronic properties, low-cost fabrication, and high photovoltaic performance. However, tin-based perovskite devices possess a few issues related to thermal instability and poor performance. A study on thermal instability will be important to understand the inner mechanism of the device. To find out the cause of thermal instability, a study on the temperature coefficient of different electrical parameters is necessary. In this work, the effect of temperature on electrical parameters of methylammonium tin iodide (CH3NH3SnI3) and methylammonium tin chloride (CH3NH3SnCl3) based Schottky devices having an ITO/Perovskites/Al architecture has been studied using a SCAPS-1D simulator. The coefficients of the temperature of these parameters have been calculated. The currentvoltage analysis shows the positive temperature coefficient of barrier height and negative temperature coefficient of the ideality factor. The estimated values of the absolute temperature coefficient of barrier height and ideality factor are 1.28 meV per K and 0.07 per K for CH3NH3SnI3 and 1.14 meV per K and 0.02 per K for CH3NH3SnCl3 perovskite-based Schottky device, respectively. The comparative study shows that the CH3NH3SnCl3 perovskite has better thermal stability. We have also studied the variation of thickness, defect densities, and acceptor concentration of the perovskites, and finally, an optimized device of both types of Schottky devices has been proposed. This study reveals the temperature sensitiveness of lead-free tin-based perovskite-based Schottky devices. The decrease in the value of different device parameters will be very informative for further study to get temperature invariant performances of lead-free perovskite solar cells.

The Potential Use of Nephelium lappaceum Seed as Coagulant-Coagulant Aid in the Treatment of Semi-Aerobic Landfill Leachate.

Chemical-based coagulants and flocculants are commonly used in the coagulation–flocculation process. However, the drawbacks of using these chemical materials have triggered researchers to find natural materials to substitute or reduce the number of chemical-based coagulants and flocculants. This study examines the potential application of Nephelium lappaceum seeds as a natural coagulant–coagulant aid with Tin (IV) chloride (SnCl4) in eliminating suspended solids (SS), colour, and chemical oxygen demand (COD) from landfill leachate. Results showed that the efficiency of Nephelium lappaceum was low when used as the main coagulant in the standard jar test. When SnCl4 was applied as a single coagulant, as much as 98.4% of SS, 96.8% of colour and 82.0% of COD was eliminated at an optimal dose of 10.5 g/L and pH 7. The higher removal efficiency of colour (88.8%) was obtained when 8.40 g/L of SnCl4 was applied with a support of 3 g/L of Nephelium lappaceum. When SnCl4 was utilised as a coagulant, and Nephelium lappaceum seed was used as a flocculant, the removal of pollutants generally improved. Overall, this research showed that Nephelium lappaceum seed is a viable natural alternative for treating landfill leachate as a coagulant aid.

Effect of air annealing on photo detecting properties of S-SILAR deposited SnS films

The well-known SILAR technique has been widely used to fabricate cost effective and durable photodetectors. From the past few decades, tin sulfide is known as a promising material for wide range photodetectors. In the present case tin sulfide films were deposited on borosilicate glass substrates by simplified SILAR technique without any complexing agents. Tin chloride and sodium sulphide were used as cationic and anionic precursors. The structural and optical properties of as deposited and annealed thin films were studied in detail. Both as deposited and annealed tin sulfide thin films showed orthorhombic crystal structure with preferred orientation along (040) plane. Both as deposited and annealed films showed significance absorption in visible and NIR region with 75% transmission. The absorption coefficient was of the order of 10-4 cm−1. The fabricated visible range photodetector with silver contacts showed significant enhancement in the photo response upon annealing. The response current and specific detectivity was found to be 30nA and 0.3 × 106 jones. Annealed SnS films showed considerable speed of response with 15.71 s rise time and 10.29 s decay time, that can be used for visible light photodetector applications.

Study of Effect of Substrate Temperature on Structure, Morphology and optical Properties of Spray Deposited Cu2ZnSnS4 Nano Thin films.

Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) films for different substrate temperatures were deposited by using simple chemical spray technique. Analytical reagent Grade; Copper chloride (CuCl2), Zinc chloride (ZnCl2), Tin chloride (SnCl4.5H2O) and thiourea (SC(NH2)2) were used as Cu+, Zn+, and Sn+ and ion sources respectively. A set of five CZTS films was deposited using five different substrate temperatures (175, 200, 250, 275, and 300 ). The structure, Morphology, Elemental analysis and optical properties of these films were studied using X-ray diffratometer (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (EDX) and UV-Visible spectroscopy techniques respectively. The XRD spectra showed that all films are polycrystalline and exhibit kesterite tetragonal crystal structure with preferential orientation along (112) direction. The crstallinity was found increased with substrate temperature. The calculated crystallite size was increased with increase in substrate temperature. The surface morphology of CZTS films was improved with increase in substrate temperature. The film sample deposited for 275 represent excellent spherical granules CZTS crystals of increasing size from 640 nm to 1.8 μm arranged in regular fashion with some void spaces. The purity of the composition was investigated using Elemental analysis of the deposited films. The optical band gap was estimated using Tauc plots. The band gap obtained was to be in the range of 1.4 to 1.6 eV.

Preliminary study on the toxicological response of red tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) on landfill leachate treated with Tin(IV) chloride and Jatropha curcas.

This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of the toxicity levels of the coagulation and flocculation process on raw and treated leachate using acute toxicity tests. Tin tetrachloride (SnCl4 ) and the Jatropha curcas (JC) seed were used as coagulant and coagulant aid to remove concentrated suspended solids, SS (534 mg/L), color (19,297 Pt-Co), and chemical oxygen demand (COD) (4188 mg/L) in a stabilized landfill leachate. The toxicity effects on local red tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus) were investigated, which involved three main steps, namely, acclimatization, range-finding test, and short-term definitive test. The presence of JC seed (0.9g/L) as a flocculant reduced the dosage of SnCl4 from 11.1 to 8.5g/L and exhibited good removals of 99.78%, 98.53%, and 74.29%, respectively, for SS, color, and COD. The toxicity test indicated that only five fish died in the first 12 h for the treated sample compared with seven deaths for untreated leachate. In 96 h, a total of 42 and 31 mortality rates were noted for the raw and treated leachate samples, respectively. The treated sample could reduce the toxicity effects to the tested tilapia fish and is safe to be discharged at appropriate dilution concentrations. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Coagulation-flocculation by Tin (IV) chloride and Jatropha Curcas (JC) was investigated. Almost complete reduction of SS was obtained at 8.5 g/L of SnCl4 and 0.9 g/L of JC as flocculant. The toxicity effect was evaluated using red tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fish as the indicator. Treated leachate was considered acceptable as the number of dead fish was lower than the untreated leachate.

Deposition Time induced Structural and Optical Properties of Lead Tin Sulphide Thin Films

Lead tin sulphide (Pb-Sn-S) thin films (TFs) were deposited on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) substrates via the electrochemical deposition process using lead (II) nitrate [Pb(NO3)2], tin (II) chloride dehydrate [SnCl2.2H2O] and thiacetamide [C2H5NS] precursors as sources of lead (Pb), tin (Sn) and sulphur (S). The solution of all the compounds was harmonized with a stirrer (magnetic) at 300k. In this study, we reported on the improvements in the properties (structural and optical) of Pb-Sn-S TFs by varying the deposition time. We observed from X-ray diffractometer (XRD) that the prepared material is polycrystalline in nature. UV-Vis measurements were done for the optical characterizations and the band gap values were seen to be increasing from 1.52 to 1.54 eV with deposition time. In addition to this, the absorption coefficient and refractive index were also estimated and discussed.