Changes In Functional Structure Research Articles

Urban sprawl functional-structural changes in neighborhood settlements: Case of study Shiraz

Sprawl is one of the forms of expansion that has entered the literature of urban management and planning in the last half-century. Iranian cities are very good example for city sprawl and they have experienced this kind of expansion in very short period and very fast. This paper aims to identify, describe, and analyze Shiraz scatter and sprawl development and its resulting functional-structure, this research is based on exploratory, descriptive and analytical methods. Data collection in this research is through the secondary data and fieldwork research techniques. Data analysis demands descriptive and inferential statistics (Pearson regression correlation). This study suggests that since 1952 Shiraz city has experienced rapid growth, continuous and non-continuous. The proportion of scatter and sprawl development with respect to Shiraz expansion increased from 22.02 in 1957-1967 to 72.8 in 1977-2007. There are three period the first rapid development between 1957 and 2967 after that 5 years gap and the next period which is longer from 30 years between 1977 and 2007. This turning points is in two specific periods are as the result of some consequences: Conversion of agricultural function as a predominant economic function in neighboring communities, into multi-functional agricultural function with emphasis upon services; of some of the rural settlements into Shiraz; The development of extended spatial, administrative, economic, social and structural changes in residential part of Shiraz. Therefore, socioeconomic activities are the main cause of urban sprawl in Shiraz and made Shiraz the most attractive place for in Fars Province. Population growth with correlation between degree of Shiraz scatter development and number of people engaged to service sector by 0.9 has caused a dramatically decline in agriculture (-0.8) and industry (-0.811) sectors. As result rapid urban population growth rate correlation by (0.127) and urbanization coefficient (0.726) and it shows urban and rural migration very important role on scatter development.

Combining local and global evolutionary trajectories of brain-behaviour relationships through game theory.

The study of the evolution of brain-behaviour relationships concerns understanding the causes and repercussions of cross- and within-species variability. Understanding such variability is a main objective of evolutionary and cognitive neuroscience, and it may help explaining the appearance of psychopathological phenotypes. Although brain evolution is related to the progressive action of selection and adaptation through multiple paths (e.g. mosaic vs. concerted evolution, metabolic vs. structural and functional constraints), a coherent, integrative framework is needed to combine evolutionary paths and neuroscientific evidence. Here, we review the literature on evolutionary pressures focusing on structural-functional changes and developmental constraints. Taking advantage of recent progress in neuroimaging and cognitive neuroscience, we propose a twofold hypothetical model of brain evolution. Within this model, global and local trajectories imply rearrangements of neural subunits and subsystems and of behavioural repertoires of a species, respectively. We incorporate these two processes in a game in which the global trajectory shapes the structural-functional neural substrates (i.e. players), while the local trajectory shapes the behavioural repertoires (i.e. stochastic payoffs).

Socio-philosophical understanding of transformation of family in the dynamics of civilization over the period from Middle Ages to Modern Age

Understanding of reasons and consequences of ongoing transformations with modern institution of the family is impossible without gaining insight into the processes, results and concept of changes that rook place with the family in its historically observable past. The subject of this research is the family and transformation of functions of the family in a historical context. The author conducts a socio-philosophical comparative analysis in compliance with the principle of systematicity and value of functions of the family through structural-comparative analysis of a historical type of medieval family with three ideal models of transitional historical periods from Middle Ages to Modern Age. The utopic concepts of T. More, T. Companella and F. Bacon served as the foundation for this research. Having examined the acceptable for philosophers types of family structure at various stages of the indicated historical period, the author determines dominant factors that affected the qualitative and essential changes of internal environment of the family as a small group, as well as structural-functional changes of the family as an institution, which led to transformation of the family and its functions. The author sees family as the basis of harmonious and happy life of an individual and a source of social well-being. The article is written from the perspective of familialism and viewed as a social institution. The scientific novelty lies in analysis of the historical type of family with hypothetical models of family, reflected in philosophical texts of this historical period, in order to determine the dominants that transform family, and establish the peculiarities of emergence of socio-philosophical concepts of studying institution of the family depending on social processes in the historical context of development. Such approach allow identifying the inward nature of structural relationships “individual – family – society – government” in a specific society.

Muscular Weakness and Loss of Motor Skills in Patients with Cerebral Palsy

Various aspects of muscle strength decrease and loss of motor skills in patients with cerebral palsy (CP) are considered in this review. Pathophysiological mechanisms caused by primary damage and reorganization of central nervous system (CNS), structural-functional changes of muscle tissue, biomechanical disbalance are described. Changes at patients with CP equate with sarcopenia (physiological process of muscle strength and function loss in elderly patients). It has been shown that patients with cerebral palsy have such phenomenon as «early aging» of musculo-skeletal system. Potential approaches for prevention of sarcopenia in children and adults with cerebral palsy are discussed. Understanding of the described mechanisms of primary and age-related changes in muscle tissue in early CNS injuries is necessary to plan the activities of daily living for patients, choose the correct rehabilitation tactics, minimize adverse therapeutic effects, and reasonable management of comorbid conditions.

The Neuropeptide System and Colorectal Cancer Liver Metastases: Mechanisms and Management.

Colorectal cancer (CRC), classified as the third most prevalent cancer worldwide, remains to be a clinical and research challenge. It is estimated that ~50% of CRC patients die from distant metastases, with treatment of this complication still posing significant difficulties. While liver metastasis (LM) cascade is known in the literature, its mechanisms are still unclear and remain studied in different research models. A connection is suggested between nervous system dysfunctions and a range of Neurotransmitters (Nts) (including Neuropeptides, NPs), Neurotrophins (Ntt) and their receptors (Rs) in CRC liver metastasis development. Studies on the role of NP/NP-Rs in the progression and metastasis of CRC, show the complexity of brain–tumor interactions, caused by their different forms of release to the extracellular environment (endocrine, autocrine, paracrine and neurocrine). Many stages of LM are connected to the activity of pro-inflammatory, e.g., Corticotropin-releasing Hormone Receptor 1 (CRHR1), Neuropeptide Y (NPY) and Neurotensin (NT), anti-inflammatory, e.g., Calcitonin Gene-related Peptide (CGRP), CRHR2 and Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide (VIP) or dual role neuropeptides, e.g., Substance P (SP). The regulation of the local immunological profile (e.g., CRH/CRHRs), dysfunctions of enteroprotective role of NPs on epithelial cells (e.g., NT/NT-R), as well as structural-functional changes in enteric nervous system innervation of the tumor are also important. More research is needed to understand the exact mechanisms of communication between the neurons and tumor cells. The knowledge on the mechanisms regulating tumor growth and different stages of metastasis, as well as effects of the action of a numerous group of Nts/NPs/Ntt as growth factors, have implications for future therapeutic strategies. To obtain the best treatment outcomes, it is important to use signaling pathways common for many NPs, as well to develop a range of broad-spectrum antagonists. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge on the importance of neuroactive molecules in the promotion of the invasion-metastasis cascade in CRC, as well as the improvements of clinical management of CRC liver metastasis.

Structural-functional changes in the muscle of the men which have been transferred by epididymoorchitis

The study of structural and functional changes in the testis under conditions of epididymorrhitis is important for urology and andrology, because changes in blood vessels, testicular parenchyma, and ejaculate adversely affect reproductive function. leading to the development of infertility. Most clinicians view epididymoorchitis not as an individual disease, but as part of the infectious-inflammatory process of the entire reproductive system. Most cases of epididymorrhitis in men 36-45 years are caused by a sexually transmitted infection, in particular Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis, via the familial duct. Nonspecific epididymoorchitis in men aged 36-60 years is most often (80 %) caused by enterobacteria and especially Escherichia coli. Methods of angiography, microscopy of testicular biopsy specimens, laboratory diagnosis of ejaculate, electron microscopy and statistics revealed that in men who underwent epididymorchitis, testicular atrophy develops with a decrease of 25 %, 23 % of the diameter of the truncate of the bowel, 32 % of them are cells of spermatogenic epithelium are not identified, in 45 % of tubules there are severe disorders of spermatogenesis. The total number of spermatogonia is reduced by 45 %, spermatocytes and spermatids – by 64 %. In the interstitium lymphocytic infiltration, growth of connective tissue elements is expressed. Interstitial endocrinocyte nucleus volume decreases by 31 %. In myoid cells, supporting epitheliocytes, interstitial endocrinocytes, endocrinocytes of hemocapillaries – homogenization of mitochondrial crystals, deformation of structures of the Golgi complex and endoplasmic reticulum are deformed. The concentration of sperm in the ejaculate is reduced by 80 %, the number of pathological forms of sperm increases in 3 times, their mobility decreases

Expression of elastolytic cathepsins in human skin and their involvement in age-dependent elastin degradation

BackgroundSkin ageing is associated with structure-functional changes in the extracellular matrix, which is in part caused by proteolytic degradation. Since cysteine cathepsins are major matrix protein-degrading proteases, we investigated the age-dependent expression of elastolytic cathepsins K, S, and V in human skin, their in vitro impact on the integrity of the elastic fibre network, their cleavage specificities, and the release of bioactive peptides. MethodsCathepsin-mediated degradation of human skin elastin samples was assessed from young to very old human donors using immunohistochemical and biochemical assays, scanning electron microscopy, and mass spectrometry. ResultsElastin samples derived from patients between 10 and 86 years of age were analysed and showed an age-dependent deterioration of the fibre structure from a dense network of thinner fibrils into a beaded and porous mesh. Reduced levels of cathepsins K, S, and V were observed in aged skin with a predominant epidermal expression. Cathepsin V was the most potent elastase followed by cathepsin K and S. Biomechanical analysis of degraded elastin fibres corroborated the destructive activity of cathepsins. Mass spectrometric determination of the cleavage sites in elastin revealed that all three cathepsins predominantly cleaved in hydrophobic domains. The degradation of elastin was efficiently inhibited by an ectosteric inhibitor. Furthermore, the degradation of elastin fibres resulted in the release of bioactive peptides, which have previously been associated with various pathologies. ConclusionCathepsins are powerful elastin-degrading enzymes and capable of generating a multitude of elastokines. They may represent a viable target for intervention strategies to reduce skin ageing.

Comparative assessment of laser therapy efficiency of chronic generalized periodontitis treatment

This paper is a result of collaboration between personnel of Saint-Petersburg and Saransk medical universities. The purpose of the investigation was to improve treatment and secondary prevention of chronic generelized periodontitis on the base of pathogenetically substantiated scheme of laser therapy. Cohort prospective study included 98 patients (31 men and 67 women) suffered from chronic generelized periodontitis at the age from 30 to 50 years with disease prescription from 3 to 10 years. All the patients were divided into three groups: standard anti-inflammatory therapy, laser therapy, antioxidant therapy. Efficiency of periodontitis treatment in the groups was estimated by clinical laboratory data, stomatological indices (РМА, SBI, API,) resistance of gingival capillaries; degree of osseous resorption. State of lipid peroxidation (LP) was estimated by the level of malondialdehyde (MDA, Fe2+-MDA) and phospholipase А2. It was found that application of laser and metabolic therapy considerably increase efficiency of standard treatment regimen and secondary prevention of chronic periodontitis, that is manifested in significant decrease structural-functional changes and in restoration of paradontium tissues microcirculation.

Изменения внеклеточно регистрируемых потенциалов действия изолированного сердца крысы при развитии стрептозотоцинового диабета

Left ventricles (LV) of isolated hearts of the control rats (n = 7) and rats injected with streptozotocin (STZ; n = 21) were studied on the four-week post-injection term using 5-µm tip (O.D.) glass extracellular microelectrodes. STZ-rats that maintained hyperglycemia by the time of the study (random glucose > 11 mM; n = 3) were designated as diabetic animals (diabetes mellitus group; STZ-DM). Remaining STZ-rats (n = 18) were designated as normoglycemic rats (STZ-NG group). In control and in STZ-rat hearts two main types of sinus rhythm action potentials (AP) of epicardial ventricular myocytes could be recorded: signals characterized by a single (AP1) or double negative peaks (AP2). Respective time parameters of AP1 (rise time, and 50% and 90% decay times (T50 and T90) not differed between studied groups of rats. However, T50 of AP2 of LV myocytes of STZ-NG and STZ-DM rats were statistically significantly longer than T50 of AP2 recorded in control rat hearts. Furthermore, in 28% of STZ-NG and in 67% of STZ-DM rat hearts additional type of AP (AP3) featuring a complex, multi-peak negative phase and prominent positive phase of after-hyperpolarization were recorded. Appearance of AP3 was associated with a proportional decrease in the relative frequency of AP2 recordings (from 80-85% to 55-60% of all recordings). Frequency of AP1 recordings remained stable, 15-20% in all experiments in all groups of rats. Tentatively, observed in this study modulation in electrical activity of ventricular myocytes of STZ-rat hearts results from structure-functional changes in organization of the T-system of these myocytes. Regardless of validity of this suggestion, it is important that changes in electrogenesis of cardiomyocytes develop fast (1 month) not only in STZ-DM rats, but also in hearts of STZ-rats with normal or moderately increased blood glucose levels, which may be considered as the state equivalent to the state of early prediabetes.

SWOT-ANALYSIS OF MODELS OF ORGANIZATION OF PROVISION OF PRIMARY HEALTH CARE IN THE UNITED TERRITORIAL COMMUNITIES

The article analyzes the strengths, weaknesses, potential opportunities and threats in the process of forming and making appropriate management decisions to integrate health facilities into united territorial communities (UTC) infrastructure, or other options, in the process of decentralization. The basic package of new legislative and regulatory documents has been worked out, which envisages radical changes and systemic reforms, decentralization of power - transfer from the executive bodies to local self-government bodies of a considerable part of powers, resources and responsibilities. A number of reform changes have been identified, which may lead to the expected institutional, organizational and structural-functional changes of the existing public health management system in Ukraine and changes in the individual functional characteristics of the entities of this system. The differences between medical reforms in terms of administrative reform, the role of UTC in this process, in relation to a number of other European countries are considered. On this basis, possible options for the development of events in the context of territorial governance of these processes in the system of health in Ukraine have been proposed. In order to continue scientific research in this direction, the next stage of the evolution of the formation and adoption of appropriate management decisions in the UTC is to consider the cooperation of the UTC in the creation of joint infrastructure medical facilities, their governing bodies, implementation of projects of activity, financing and maintenance.

Structure-functional changes in eNAMPT at high concentrations mediate mouse and human beta cell dysfunction in type 2 diabetes

Aims/hypothesisProgressive decline in functional beta cell mass is central to the development of type 2 diabetes. Elevated serum levels of extracellular nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (eNAMPT) are associated with beta cell failure in type 2 diabetes and eNAMPT immuno-neutralisation improves glucose tolerance in mouse models of diabetes. Despite this, the effects of eNAMPT on functional beta cell mass are poorly elucidated, with some studies having separately reported beta cell-protective effects of eNAMPT. eNAMPT exists in structurally and functionally distinct monomeric and dimeric forms. Dimerisation is essential for the NAD-biosynthetic capacity of NAMPT. Monomeric eNAMPT does not possess NAD-biosynthetic capacity and may exert distinct NAD-independent effects. This study aimed to fully characterise the structure-functional effects of eNAMPT on pancreatic beta cell functional mass and to relate these to beta cell failure in type 2 diabetes.MethodsCD-1 mice and serum from obese humans who were without diabetes, with impaired fasting glucose (IFG) or with type 2 diabetes (from the Body Fat, Surgery and Hormone [BodyFatS&H] study) or with or at risk of developing type 2 diabetes (from the VaSera trial) were used in this study. We generated recombinant wild-type and monomeric eNAMPT to explore the effects of eNAMPT on functional beta cell mass in isolated mouse and human islets. Beta cell function was determined by static and dynamic insulin secretion and intracellular calcium microfluorimetry. NAD-biosynthetic capacity of eNAMPT was assessed by colorimetric and fluorescent assays and by native mass spectrometry. Islet cell number was determined by immunohistochemical staining for insulin, glucagon and somatostatin, with islet apoptosis determined by caspase 3/7 activity. Markers of inflammation and beta cell identity were determined by quantitative reverse transcription PCR. Total, monomeric and dimeric eNAMPT and nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) were evaluated by ELISA, western blot and fluorometric assay using serum from non-diabetic, glucose intolerant and type 2 diabetic individuals.ResultseNAMPT exerts bimodal and concentration- and structure-functional-dependent effects on beta cell functional mass. At low physiological concentrations (~1 ng/ml), as seen in serum from humans without diabetes, eNAMPT enhances beta cell function through NAD-dependent mechanisms, consistent with eNAMPT being present as a dimer. However, as eNAMPT concentrations rise to ~5 ng/ml, as in type 2 diabetes, eNAMPT begins to adopt a monomeric form and mediates beta cell dysfunction, reduced beta cell identity and number, increased alpha cell number and increased apoptosis, through NAD-independent proinflammatory mechanisms.Conclusions/interpretationWe have characterised a novel mechanism of beta cell dysfunction in type 2 diabetes. At low physiological levels, eNAMPT exists in dimer form and maintains beta cell function and identity through NAD-dependent mechanisms. However, as eNAMPT levels rise, as in type 2 diabetes, structure-functional changes occur resulting in marked elevation of monomeric eNAMPT, which induces a diabetic phenotype in pancreatic islets. Strategies to selectively target monomeric eNAMPT could represent promising therapeutic strategies for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Ефективність застосування маломінералізованої хлоридної натрієвої води у корекції структурно-функціональних змін печінки щурів з алкогольним гепатозом

Ефективність застосування маломінералізованої хлоридної натрієвої води у корекції структурно-функціональних змін печінки щурів з алкогольним гепатозом

Efecto del ejercicio físico en la enfermedad de Alzheimer. Una revisión sistemática

ObjectiveThe objective of this review is to analyze through a the scientific evidence about the effects of physical activity in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) as a preventive and non-pharmacological treatment. DesignSystematic review. Data sources: We have identified articles from Pubmed, Science Direct, Medline and Scopus databases, with the keywords Alzheimer, Exercise, Neuroimaging, MRI, PET y Physical Activity. Selected articles: We included those studies that evaluated the effects of physical activity on Alzheimer's disease and those which also included magnetic resonance imaging or positron emission tomography with Pittsburg Compound B marker (PiB) analyzing brain atrophy or increase of the beta-amyloid deposit respectively. We excluded studies including other types of dementia, different of AD. We also excluded articles which not included neuroimaging tests, single cases or non-English language articles. Data extraction: The PRISMA quality scale was used for the critical lecture of the studies. The researchers independently assessed the articles and the discrepancies were resolved by consensus. ResultsWe identified 75 articles, of which 23 were finally included in the review. ConclusionsMost of the studies included do not allow us to know the impact of physical exercise on cognition and the cerebral structural-functional changes in patients at risk of developing AD or in patients who already have the disease. Without being able to rule out a possible beneficial effect, more studies are needed with a better design and methodological rigor that allows a better known about this association.

Body fat mass in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease as a risk factor for right ventricular structural-functional changes

Aim. To study the correlation between the body fat mass (BFM) and the structural-functional characteristics of right ventricle (RV) in patients with different body mass, suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
 Materials and methods. Echocardiography, ultrasound determination of subcutaneous and premesenterial layer thickness, assessment of leptin level was performed in 72 COPD patients, who were divided into three groups: group 1 – patients with normal body mass (n = 31), group 2 – patients with excess weight (n = 21), group 3 – patients with class I-II obesity (n= 20).
 Results. Among COPD patients, body mass index (BMI) growth causes increase in BFM and subcutaneous and premesenterial fat thickness, elevation in blood serum leptin level, but decrease in lean body mass (LBM). The global longitudinal systolic strain of the free wall of RV in COPD patients with obesity (–17.39 ± 3.64, p = 0.002) and elevated body mass (–17.96 ± 5.69, p = 0.006) is reduced.
 Conclusions. Among COPD patients with different body mass, the global longitudinal systolic strain of RV free wall aggravates as leptin level and body fat mass grow that can be the reflection of mechanical exposure and epicardial fat pressure on the right ventricle.

Evaluation of structural-functional changes of the left ventricular myocardium in patients with arterial hypertension and obesity by the level of irisin

The aim was to evaluate the structural and functional changes of the left ventricular myocardium according to the data of echocardiography in patients with arterial hypertension combined with obesity by the level of irisin. Materials and methods. 105 patients were divided into 2 groups for participation in the study: the 1 group consisted of patients with arterial hypertension with concomitant obesity with concomitant obesity (n = 70), the group 2 – patients with arterial hypertension and normal body weight (n = 35). The control group consisted of 25 practically healthy persons. All participants of the study underwent irisin level measurement by an enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay and an echocardiographic examination with subsequent computer processing of the results using the software package “Statistica 6.0” (StatSoft Inc.,USA). Results . In patients with arterial hypertension and obesity, hypoirisinemia (irisin level <1.19 ± 0.03 ng/ml) was associated with an increase in the end-diastolic and systolic volumes by 31.57 % (r = -0.44; Р < 0. 05) and 20.70 % (r = -0.53; P <0.05), sizes – by 43.54 % (r = -0.36; P < 0.05) and 40.44 % (r = -0.62; P < 0.05) and decrease in the ejection fraction by 16.59 % (r = 0.41; P < 0.05) (P < 0.05). Conclusions. Decrease in the content of serum irisin leads to structural and functional changes in the left ventricular myocardium in the form of myocardial contractility reduction and increase in both the cavity and size of the left ventricle, and can play a role in the pathogenesis of obesity in patients with arterial hypertension.

Neurotransmitter selection by monoamine oxidase isoforms, dissected in terms of functional groups by mixed double mutant cycles.

Double mutant cycles were constructed using neurotransmitters and synthetic substrates that measure their selective binding to one monoamine oxidase (MAO) enzyme isoform over another as a function of structural change. This work measures a reduction in selectivity for the MAOB isoform of 3 to 9.5 kJ mol-1 upon the addition of hydroxy functional groups to a phenethylamine scaffold. Replacement of hydroxy functional groups on the phenethylamine scaffold by hydrophobic substituents measures an increase in selectivity for MAOB of -1.1 to -6.9 kJ mol-1. The strategies presented here can be applied to the development of competitive reversible inhibitors of MAO enzymes and other targets with structurally related isoforms.

СТРУКТУРНІ ЗМІНИ У ТОВСТІЙ КИШЦІ ЩУРІВ ПРИ ОЖИРІННІ ТА ПРИ ЙОГО КОРЕКЦІЇ РАНКОВИМИ ТА ВЕЧІРНІМИ ВВЕДЕННЯМИ МЕЛАТОНІНУ

The effect of morning and evening administrations of melatonin on structural and functional changes in the large intestine of rats with obesity under conditions of the spring-autumn photoperiod (12L:12D) was studied in this work. The obesity was caused with a high-calorie diet for 6 weeks. After that, the morning or evening melatonin administrations were given to normal and obese animals at a dose of 30 mg/kg for 7 weeks. After 13 weeks, two specimens of the colon 1 cm each were taken at a distance of 3 cm from the anus; fixed in 10% formalin and in Carnua solution; paraffin sections of the large intestine were made; stained them with hematoxylin-eosin, alcian blue-carmine, or toluidine blue. Microscopic and morphometric analysis of these sections was performed. It has been shown, that obesity cause hyperactivation of the colonic mucosa, reduction of colonocytes, hypertrophy of goblet cells and overaccumulation of granules in mast cells. Morning administration of melatonin to obese animals normalizes the colonic mucosa, decreases the reduction of colonocytes, but causes the hypotrophy of goblet cells. Evening administration of melatonin significantly decreases the reduction of colonocytes, but does not eliminate other changes caused by obesity. The administration of melatonin (both morning and evening) to animals without obesity causes an activation of the mucosa, hypertrophy of goblet cells, reduction of colonocytes, and does not change the state of mast cells. Consequently, it cannot make a clear conclusion about the possibility of correction of all structural-functional changes in the large intestine during obesity by melatonin. Although, the morning administration of melatonin had some normalizing effects on the colon and it was more effective than evening administration.

Особливості клініко-метаболічних порушень та структурно-функціональних змін серця у хворих на гіпертонічну хворобу з абдомінальним ожирінням та гіпертрофією серця

Особливості клініко-метаболічних порушень та структурно-функціональних змін серця у хворих на гіпертонічну хворобу з абдомінальним ожирінням та гіпертрофією серця

Changes in Retinal Glial Cells with Age and during Development of Age-Related Macular Degeneration.

Age is the major risk factor in the age-related macular degeneration (AMD) which is a complex multifactor neurodegenerative disease of the retina and the main cause of irreversible vision loss in people over 60 years old. The major role in AMD pathogenesis belongs to structure-functional changes in the retinal pigment epithelium cells, while the onset and progression of AMD are commonly believed to be caused by the immune system dysfunctions. The role of retinal glial cells (Muller cells, astrocytes, and microglia) in AMD pathogenesis is studied much less. These cells maintain neurons and retinal vessels through the synthesis of neurotrophic and angiogenic factors, as well as perform supporting, separating, trophic, secretory, and immune functions. It is known that retinal glia experiences morphological and functional changes with age. Age-related impairments in the functional activity of glial cells are closely related to the changes in the expression of trophic factors that affect the status of all cell types in the retina. In this review, we summarized available literature data on the role of retinal macro- and microglia and on the contribution of these cells to AMD pathogenesis.

Human energy expenditure: advances in organ‐tissue prediction models

Humans expend energy at rest (REE), and this major energy exchange component is now usually estimated using statistical equations that include weight and other predictor variables. While these formulas are useful in evaluating an individual's or group's REE, an important gap remains: available statistical models are inadequate for explaining underlying organ-specific and tissue-specific mechanisms accounting for resting heat production. The lack of such systems level REE prediction models leaves many research questions unanswered. A potential approach that can fill this gap began with investigators who first showed in animals and later in humans that REE reflects the summated heat production rates of individual organs and tissues. Today, using advanced imaging technologies, REE can be accurately estimated from the measured in vivo mass of 10 organ-tissue mass components combined with their respective mass-specific metabolic rates. This review examines the next frontier of energy expenditure models and discusses how organ-tissue models have the potential not only to better predict REE but also to provide insights into how perturbations in organ mass lead to structure-function changes across other interacting organ systems. The introductory ideas advanced in this review provide a framework for future human energy expenditure modelling research.