Stirring Speed Research Articles

Utilization of battery waste derived ZnO in the removal of dye from aqueous solution: A waste to wealth approach

Every year a huge amount of zinc carbon batteries is discarded as waste and the management of such waste has become a growing concern all over the world. However, from these waste carbon batteries different kinds of valuable materials could be recovered. On the other hand, different industries discharged large volumes of dye wastewater into the environment which has a profound impact on environment and as well as human health. In this study, ZnO was recovered from the waste carbon batteries through pyrometallurgy process and utilized it for the treatment of methylene blue and methyl orange dye water. The batch adsorption process was carried out to observe the effect of adsorbent dosage, pH, contact time, stirring speed and temperature. Under the obtained optimal conditions adsorption kinetics (Pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order) and adsorption isotherms (Langmuir, Freundlich and Temkin) were analyzed. The results disclosed that 0.5 g and 0.6 g of ZnO showed maximum removal efficiency for MB and MO dye solution (50 ppm) whereas pH 13 and 6 were the optimal for MB and MO respectively. Kinetic studies indicate that both the adsorption processes were pseudo-second order. It was also revealed that based on regression coefficient R2 value the adsorption of MB and MO on ZnO is followed Langmuir model. Furthermore, the findings revealed that the MO adsorption on ZnO is a chemical adsorption process and MB adsorption is a physical adsorption process.

Optimization of synthesis parameters of PUF/ENB microcapsules for self‐healing applications using factorial design methodology

AbstractThis study introduces a systematic experimental approach aimed at enhancing the production process of poly(urea‐formaldehyde) (PUF) microcapsules filled with 5‐ethylidene‐2‐norbonene (ENB) using in situ emulsion polymerization. Essential parameters were identified through a prior Plackett Burman (PB) design, leading to the implementation of a 24‐1 fractional factorial design. The key parameters selected encompassed stirring speed, poly(ethylene‐alt‐maleic anhydride) (EMA) emulsifier content, pH of the reaction, and the quantity of 1‐octanol. Optimal conditions for polymeric microcapsule synthesis were determined using a statistical analysis of the complete factorial design, facilitating the development of representative mathematical models for the process. A comprehensive evaluation of response variables including microcapsule diameter, yield, encapsulated content, stability, and thermal degradation was conducted. Utilizing response surface analysis (RSM), it was determined that the PUF/ENB(2C) condition (stirring at 700 rpm, a reaction pH of 3.0, and EMA content of 0.425 g) resides within the optimized synthesis region, producing microcapsules exhibiting favorable morphological characteristics, yield of 52% and encapsulated content of 80%.

Formulation and Optimization of Valganciclovir-loaded Nanosponges

The objective of our study was to form a novel method of delivering drugs that would improve the effectiveness of valganciclovir, an antiviral medication used to treat cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection in individuals with weakened immune systems. The drug’s induction dosage has limited penetration and requires very high doses. The nanosponges were synthesized using the emulsion solvent diffusion method, employing a 32 full factorial design to determine the combined impact of 2 independent variables: Quantity of ethyl cellulose and stirring speed. The dependent variables assessed were zeta potential, polydispersity index (PDI), and entrapment efficiency. Improved formulation exhibited an entrapment efficiency of 83.61%, a zeta potential. of -17.6 mV, and a PDI of 0.51. The improved formulation exhibited a continuous and controlled release of the medication. The produced nanosponges were characterized using fourier transform infrared (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

Analysis of the Impact of Nanofluids on the Improvement in CO2 Absorption using Taguchi Method

Capturing Carbon dioxide (CO2) has been the most crucial issue due to the dangerous impact of emissions of CO2 on the warming of globe and climate change. A novel class of solvent has been effectively employed in absorption technology in recent decades to eliminate CO2. The process of employing nanofluids to enhance CO2 uptake is receiving a lot of attention. However, other studies are needed to enhance the nanofluid absorption rate. The purpose of this study was to use nanofluid (based on amines) to optimize the absorption process for CO2 from flue gas. The technique was designed to extract CO2 from exhaust gas. This paper discusses the removal of CO2 from flue gas and parameter adjustments that increase overall removal efficiency. The nanoparticle concentration, stirring speed, and nanoparticle size were all varied during the tests. The experimental design using Taguchi method was applied to determine the optimal conditions of nanofluid for the process of absorption. Taguchi experimental design to investigate the perfect setting for the highest possible rate of CO2 absorption. The best settings were found to be a nanoparticle beginning concentration of 0.01 vol%, a stirrer speed of 4 rpm, and a nano size of 60 nm, according to the results of multiple regression and signal to noise ratio (S/N). Additionally, the analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the relative significance of each factor. The results show that the proportion of contributions were as follows: mixing speed (rpm) 46.56%, nano concentration (vol.%) 4.33%, and nano size (nm) 43.18%. The most useful parameter was the mixing speed (rpm). The experimental and anticipated values agreed well with regression analysis (R2=97.26%), and the findings of the confirmation test demonstrated that the CO2 absorption rate was 0.0029 g/s; a success that is highly advantageous for industrial uses.

Development and Evaluation of Riluzole Loaded PLGA Nanoparticles for Improved Permeability across BBB

Blood-brain barrier is a physiological barrier that prevents drugs from reaching the brain or being bioavailable for treating brain disorders. Degenerative diseases like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) seriously impact our daily lives. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved this drug to treat ALS as a chemical derivative of 2- amino-6 [tri-fluoro-methoxy] benzo-thiazole. In order to improve the drug’s therapeutic efficacy, poly-(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PLGA) were loaded with riluzole and deposited using emulsifying solvent deposition. A design expert software program was used to optimize formulation parameters, including polymer concentration, surfactant concentration, and stirring speed, based on the particle size, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency responses. Three formulations were taken forward for further study based on the results of 20 trials. Compared to differential scanning calorimetry and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) studies performed beforehand, there were no significant interactions between RZL and the excipients. Nanoparticles prepared with scanning electron microscopy had a smooth surface and a spherical shape. The particle size distribution ranged from 184 ± 74 nm to a maximum of 204.5 ± 71. As a consequence, the particle size distribution is relatively narrow, with lower polymer concentrations, and is ideal for drug delivery. A range of -17.3 to -18.2mV was found for the zeta potential of the nanoparticles. The encapsulation efficiency ranged from 42.61 ± 3.61 to 60.02 ± 1.94%, forming 1:1 to 1:4 drug: Polymer ratios, respectively. Over a period of 22 to 26 hours, the RLZ was continuously released from the nanoparticles. A loading dose may be built by 24% of the drug being released within 3 hours of administration.

A synergistic integration of life cycle assessment and response surface methodology to optimize grape stalk waste-based biosorption for effective Cd(II) removal

In order to remove Cd(II) ions from aqueous solutions, this research suggests an in-depth study on a laboratory scale for the efficient and sustainable removal of Cd(II) in aqueous solution using wine industry grape stalk waste. The maximum biosorption capacity that was achieved was 84.74 mg/g for the Langmuir isotherm model. The kinetic studies revealed that the biosorption data were better explained by a pseudo-second order model. By using the response surface method with desirability functions, the optimal variables were determined for three optimization scenarios. The first optimization scenario yielded the highest percentage of cadmium removal, reaching 87.75%. The goal of that scenario was intended to obtain the maximum percentage of cadmium removal while minimizing the cost of the process. In this scenario, the greatest environmental impact was on the marine aquatic ecotoxicity (2.685 kg 1.4 DB eq.) with a power consumption of 27.05 W. Furthermore, the values for the input variables were an initial cadmium concentration of 0.6 mg/l, pH of 7.5, stirring time of 10 min, stirring speed of 100 rpm, a process temperature of 15 °C, and a dose of grape stalk of 0.50 g. The experimental and predicted findings agree. This suggests that grape stalk waste has potential applications as a biosorbent for the removal of Cd(II) ions from aqueous solution.

Applying circular economy principles and life cycle assessment: A novel approach using vine shoots waste for cadmium removal from water

This research investigates the potential of utilizing vine shoots, a byproduct of the viticulture industry, as biosorbent for cadmium removal from aqueous solutions. The Spanish wine industry, one of the most influential sectors, produces two to three million tons of vine shoots. By using vine shoots as biosorbent, this study contributes to the circular economy paradigm, transforming waste materials into valuable resources and minimizing environmental impacts associated with waste generation and disposal. The research underscores the significance of vine shoots in biosorption due to its high lignocellulosic content. By experimental analysis, the efficacy of vine shoots in cadmium biosorption is evaluated, considering factors such as environmental impact or energy consumption. This study examines the effect of six key input parameters on cadmium removal efficiency and power consumption, identifying optimal conditions for maximum removal with minimal energy consumption. The findings suggest that vine shoots offer promising biosorption capabilities, promoting sustainability in wastewater treatment and environmental remediation efforts. By employing the response surface method alongside desirability functions, the study determined the optimal variables for two distinct optimization scenarios. Notably, in the second optimization scenario, a cadmium removal rate of 99.23 % was achieved while consuming 25.6 W of power. The input parameters for this achievement should be set as follows: initial cadmium concentration of 100 ppm, pH level of 8, stirring time of 75 min, stirring speed of 100 rpm, temperature of 26 °C, and a dose of vine shoots of 0.1 g.

Optimization design and experiment of double-helix total mixed rations preparation mixer for silage straw feed

Aiming at the problems of uneven mixing and low production efficiency of domestic silage mixer, a double- helix TMR (Total Mixed Rations) preparation mixer for silage straw feed was designed to replace the traditional vertical single-helix mixer. The performance tests and parameter optimization were carried out on this preparation machine. By analyzing the mixing process and mechanism of the diets in the mixing chamber, the key factors affecting the mixing performance and the range were determined. It was found that the greater the stirring speed of the churn, the greater the angle of material lift, the more conducive to improving the material lifting capacity of the churn device. The mixing characteristics of the preparation machine and the movement of material were numerically simulated using EDEM simulation software, and the mixing effect of the preparation machine was verified. The three-factor and five-level CCD center combination orthogonal rotary test in the prototype was carried out with stirring speed of the churn, mixing time and filling coefficient as influencing factors, mixing uniformity, roughage particle size and ton material energy consumption as evaluation indexes. The test results showed that the contribution of each factor to the mixing uniformity in descending order was filling coefficient, stirring speed and mixing time, to the roughage particle size was stirring speed, mixing time and filling coefficient, and to the ton material energy consumption was filling coefficient, mixing time and stirring speed. The optimal working parameters for mixing performance by comprehensive optimization could be concluded as stirring speed of 48.59 r/min, mixing time of 14.98 min, and filling coefficient of 70%. In addition, the mixing uniformity, roughage particle size and ton material energy consumption were obtained as 91.11%, 72.13% and 2.99 kW·h/t. The relative error for all evaluation indexes between the experimental results with round parameter combination and the predicted value was verified to be less than 3%. It can be seen the double-helix TMR preparation mixer can meet the demand for efficient mixing of silage straw feed, which obviously provides data reference and technical support for the design and selection of operating parameters of TMR preparation machines.

Surface modification of micronized calcite (CaCO3) with stearic acid via mechanical dry coating

In this study, the surface coating (modification) of micronized calcite (CaCO3, d50=135 μm) in a stirred media (bead) mill with stearic acid was investigated. As a result of 15 min grinding and 5 min coating experiments, a product with d50=2.15 μm and specific surface area of 3.21 m2/cm3 was obtained. The activation rate of this final product as an indicator of coating rate was 97.7%. According to the optimum coating results, the stearic acid rate was determined as 1%, the modification time was 7.5 min, the ball load was 900 g and the stirring speed was 600 rpm.

The influence of sodium fluoride on the dissolution kinetics of metallic titanium in citric acid solution using the rotating disc method

This study reports the effect of sodium fluoride on the dissolution kinetics of pure metallic titanium in a citric acid solution. The effects of sodium fluoride concentration, citric acid concentration, temperature, stirring speed, and disc surface area were examined. The dissolution rate of titanium increases strongly with increasing citric acid and sodium fluoride concentrations. Fluoride ions react with hydrogen ions to form hydrofluoric acid, which removes the passive layer of titanium dioxide. An increase in the concentration of NaF and acid causes the formation of a brown layer on the surface of titanium. X-ray diffraction and SEM-EDX analyses showed that the layer composition is mostly of titanium fluoride (TiF3) and titanium fluoride oxide (TiOF2). A mixed kinetic model with an activation energy of 26.4 kJ/mol can be used to explain the reaction kinetics.

On the performance of a latent heat thermal storage unit integrated with a helically coiled copper tube and organic phase change materials: A lab-scale experimental study

In this study, the performance of a latent heat thermal storage (LHTS) unit integrated with a helically coiled copper tube and organic phase change materials is investigated using a lab-scale experimental setup. The effects of various operating conditions such as the coil thickness, testing fluid temperature/flow rate, PCM type, turbulator, and stirrer rotational speed on phase change behavior are investigated. The evaluation is based on PCM temperature variations, total heat transfer coefficient, and thermal effectiveness. The effects of testing fluid temperature, PCM type, turbulator, and stirring speed on phase change behavior are found to be more pronounced compared to those of the coil thickness and the fluid volume flow rate. Considering the melting process, it is found that the average temperature of the PCM in the LHTS unit with a turbulator is higher than that of the case without turbulator by nearly 10 °C which indicates an improvement in the heat transfer between water-PCM. The average PCM temperature is found to increase by 2 °C and 3.5 °C when a stirrer with a rotational speed of 200 and 400 rpm is employed, respectively. The total heat transfer coefficient for the LHTS unit at a stirring speed of 400 rpm (200 rpm) shows a significant increase of 39.6% (27%) compared to the scenario without a stirrer.

Chemical reclamation of waste green foundry sand and its application in core production

The disposal of Waste Foundry Sand (WFS) poses a significant challenge for the foundry industry today, primarily due to its composition of metal oxides (Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, CaO, and Na2O) and sand. These metal oxides, categorized as loosely and strongly bound clays, are considered impurities in core production. This study proposes a chemical reclamation technique for WFS using fresh acid solutions or acidic industrial effluent. Experiments were conducted to remove the loosely and strongly bound clays from the WFS, optimizing parameters such as acid concentration, sand to acid loading, temperature, stirring speed, and reaction time to achieve optimal performance. The quality of the reclaimed sand was evaluated using various foundry standard tests, including determination of clay contents, compressive strength, Grain Fineness Number (GFN), Loss on Ignition (LOI), Acid Demand Value (ADV), and scanning electron microscopy. The reclaimed sand exhibited a loosely bound clay content of 1.5 %, oolitic content of 5.5 %, a grain fineness number of 55, a loss on ignition of 1.92 %, and an acid demand value of 1.5 ml/100 g of sand. Field trials demonstrated that the reclaimed sand can be effectively used for core production at an economical rate.

Coagulation process for the removal of color and turbidity from wet coffee processing industry wastewater using bio-coagulant: Optimization through central composite design

The growing problem of industrial pollution in developing countries, especially Ethiopia, has sparked serious issues about the quality of the water, particularly when it comes to the effluent from wet coffee processing industries. In response, this study investigates the potential of utilizing natural coagulants, Acanthus sennii C., Moringa stenopetala B., and Aloe vera L., either individually or in combination, for the treatment of coffee effluent. Methodologically, the study systematically varies operational parameters, including coagulant dose, pH levels, stirring speed, and stirring time, to evaluate their impact on coagulation efficiency. Experimental data undergo statistical analysis, employing ANOVA, while computational optimization techniques are employed using Design Expert software to determine optimal conditions. Notably, the blended form of the three coagulants emerges as particularly promising, yielding optimal conditions of 0.750 g/L coagulant dosage, pH 8.76, agitation speed of 80.73 rpm, and agitation time of 19.23 min. Under these optimized conditions, the blended coagulant achieves remarkable removal efficiencies, approximately 99.99% for color and 98.7% for turbidity. These findings underscore the efficiency of natural coagulants, particularly in blended form, for sustainable wastewater treatment in wet coffee processing.

Particle Size of Calcium Hydroxide Prepared by Wet Digestion: Influencing Factors and Mechanism

AbstractThe wet dissolution process of lime is an effective approach for synthesizing calcium hydroxide. Process parameters and additives exert influence on the product particle. Among the process parameters, lime particle size, reaction temperature, and time have a significant impact on product particle size, followed by liquid‐solid ratio and stirring speed. The experiment proved that reaction time affects product particle size by affecting the crystal growth, while other process parameters affect the particle size by affecting the ion diffusion behavior. In terms of inorganic additives, Ca(OH)2 has minimal effect on product particle size; however, NaOH and CaCl2 can significantly enhance it with a greater dose leading to a larger increase. The experiment proved that Ca(OH)2, NaOH, and CaCl2 influence particle size through their impact on ion diffusion behavior. Regarding organic additives, soluble starch exhibits the greatest effect on product size followed by triethanolamine and polyvinylpyrrolidone K30. The experiment proved that soluble starch, triethanolamine, and polyvinylpyrrolidone K30 affect product particle size by influencing its crystallization position. Finally, an ultrafine slurry of calcium hydroxide was prepared using the lime wet digestion method based on the aforementioned research, with particle size distribution characterized by D10, D50, and D90 values of 0.303, 1.750, and 4.534 µm respectively.

Leaching of Nickel and Cobalt from a Mixed Nickel-Cobalt Hydroxide Precipitate Using Organic Acids

Nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co) are strategic metals that have found applications in a wide range of metallurgical and industrial uses. In this study, the dissolution of a mixed nickel–cobalt hydroxide precipitate using organic acids (citric, oxalic, and malic acid) was investigated. Citric acid was found to be the best leaching agent yielding the following dissolution rates: 91.2% Ni, 86.8% Co, and 90.8% Mn. Oxalic acid resulted in low dissolution, which is likely due to the formation of insoluble metal oxalates. The impact of acid concentration, leaching time, and temperature on metal dissolution was systematically examined. The optimal dissolution conditions were identified as 0.5 M citric acid at 30 °C for 30 min, utilizing a 1/20 solid/liquid ratio and a stirring speed of 400 revolutions per minute (rpm). The attempt to use oxidants, such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), to achieve selective dissolution in an organic acid environment was not successful, which was different from that in the sulfuric acid case. As for the leaching kinetics in the organic acids, it seems that the leaching of Ni correlates with the Shrinking Core Model, specifically regarding porous-layer diffusion control. Based on the experimental results, the activation energy for the leaching of Ni was estimated to be 3.1 kJ/mol.

Efficient removal of Rhodamine B dye using biochar as an adsorbent: Study the performance, kinetics, thermodynamics, adsorption isotherms and its reusability

Removal of toxic dyes such as Rhodamine B is essential as it pollutes aqueous and soil streams as well. This comprehensive study explores the potential of Calophyllum inophyllum seed char as an efficient bio-adsorbent based on their characteristic properties and a comparative study between various carbon-based adsorbents on the adsorption capacity of Rhodamine B dye. In this study, the char was prepared from Calophyllum inophyllum seed using a slow pyrolysis process (298 K/min) at an optimum temperature of 823 K and used as an adsorbent for the removal of Rhodamine B from water. The resulting char was mesoporous and had 155.389 m2/g surface areas (BET) and 0.628 cc/g pore volume. The formation of pores was observed from the SEM analysis. The adsorption studies were tested and optimized through various parameters such as solution pH, adsorbent dosage, initial dye concentration, stirring speed, contact time, and solution temperature. Maximum 95.5 % removal of Rhodamine B was possible at the pH: 2, stirring speed: 100 rpm, time: 25 min, temperature 308 K, and dose: 1.2 g/L. The highest adsorption capacity at equilibrium was determined to be 169.5 (mg/g) through Langmuir adsorption isotherm studies and followed pseudo 2nd order kinetics. The thermodynamics study confirmed the adsorption processes were spontaneous (ΔG°=−0.735 kJ/mol) and endothermic (ΔH° = 4.1 kJ/mol) processes. The reusability study confirmed that the mesoporous char can be reused as an efficient adsorbent for up to 3 cycles for environmental remediation.

Semisolid stir processing of AZ91/TiO2 nanocomposite analysis with SiC exposure: behaviour measures

ABSTRACT This research affair to synthesize the magnesium alloy (AZ91) hybrid nanocomposites with 0.5wt% titanium dioxide (TiO2) and 2.5, 5, and 7.5wt% of silicon carbide (SiC) nanoparticles through a semisolid stir cast route under argon (inert) nature and its particle distribution enhanced with uniform stir speed of 400rpm as well as the casting defects reduced by using nature of inert. The excellence of semisolid stir processing with SiC exposure on AZ91/TiO2 composite is analyzed with physical, surface morphological and mechanical exploits. Compared to aluminium-based composites, this composite weight is less, with an acceptable level of voids (less than 1.5%). An effort of processing, the microstructure proved their SiC and TiO2 appearance as uniform. The AZ91/0.5wt%TiO2/7.5wt% SiC exploited maximum hardness of (84±0.8HV), impact toughness of (16.3±0.3J/mm2), and excellent strength (251±5MPa) with reduced elongation percentages of (4.5%). This optimum property sample will be planned for automotive roof frame applications.

Development of chitosan microparticles via interfacial polymeric crosslinking method utilizing sodium trimetaphosphate

Chitosan derived from the alkaline deacetylation of chitin found in crustacean exoskeletons, is a natural biopolymer. It has been employed as a matrix for microparticles and crosslinked systems, facilitating the immobilization and controlled release of drugs, ensuring stability, safety, and efficacy. Microencapsulation, a technique involving the coating of active products in polymeric layers, allows for their release under specific conditions and controlled rates, achieved through the formation of microspheres or microcapsules. The distinctive features of chitosan, such as its non-toxicity, biodegradability, and cost-effectiveness, make it advantageous over other polysaccharides. This study aimed to produce chitosan microparticles through the interfacial polymeric crosslinking method, utilizing sodium trimetaphosphate as the crosslinking agent. A pre-formulation study, involving varying concentrations of polymer, crosslinking agent, and two stirring speeds, was conducted to assess their direct correlation with microparticle size. The interfacial polymeric crosslinking method successfully yielded spherical microparticles, maintaining a wrinkled surface aspect, with size variations according to the formulation. Parameters such as crosslinking agent concentration and stirring speed were identified as influencing factors on microparticle size. In conclusion, interfacial polymeric crosslinking using sodium trimetaphosphate proves effective in obtaining chitosan microparticles.

Selective Recovery of Lithium Hydroxide from Spent NCA (LiNiCoAlO2) Powder

This research was conducted on the method of recovering the lithium hydroxide and valuable metal from the NCA-based cathode active materials in the spent lithium-ion batteries. The recovery rate of lithium depends on the reaction temperature, retention time, reaction time during H2 reduction and solid-liquid ratio. Lithium hydroxide and valuable metals were recovered under each experimental condition, and the following optimal process conditions were determined based on the results of experiment. Based on the charging of 10g of NCA powder, the optimal process conditions were determined as follows: the reaction temperature of 700?; the retention time of 3hrs; and the H2 gas flowrate of 300cc/min; the leaching time of 1hr for water leaching; the solid-liquid ratio of the sample and distilled water at 1:30; the stirring speed of 300rpm at room temperature, and the recovery rate of 92.30% was achieved.

Optimization and Deep Learning Modeling of the Yield and Properties of Baobab-Derived Biodiesel Catalyzed by Waste Banana Bunch Stalk Biochar.

The integration of optimization techniques and deep learning models, which offer a promising avenue for improving the efficiency and sustainability of biodiesel production processes from baobab seed oil (BSO), is rare. This study utilized a multi-input-multioutput (MIMO) deep learning technique and the most recent central composite design (CCD) optimization tool to model and optimize the yield and properties of biodiesel produced from BSO. First, the baobab seed oil was extracted using a solvent extraction method. BSO was subsequently analyzed and converted to biodiesel by reacting CH3OH catalyzed by waste banana bunch stalk biochar activated by KOH. Multiobjective optimization and prediction of the biodiesel yield (Y) and several key fuel properties, including the cetane number (CN), kinematic viscosity (VS), and purity (P), were achieved. With better correlation coefficients of 0.9709, 0.9464, and 0.9714 for response training, response testing, and response validation, respectively, and a root-mean-square error of 0.00755, the MIMO model on the logsig transfer function accurately predicted the biodiesel yield and properties more than did the MISO and response surface methodology models. The optimum Y (96 wt %), CN (48), VS (3.3 mm2/s), and P (98.3%) were concurrently accomplished at a reaction temperature of 56 °C, a reaction time of 115 min, a CH3OH/BSO molar ratio of 15:1, a catalyst dosage of 6 wt %, and a stirring speed of 400 rpm with 98% optimal validation accuracy. CCD sensitivity analysis revealed that the CH3OH/BSO ratio was the most sensitive (50.9%) input predictor among the other input variables studied.