Agricultural Specialization Research Articles

ОСОБЕННОСТИ РАЗВИТИЯ ВНЕШНЕТОРГОВОЙ ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТИ КУРСКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ

The development of Russia's foreign trade is facing a number of difficulties caused primarily by the instability of the external environment of the world market and its politicization, which negatively affects all participants in relations. Political tensions in 2014 and subsequent counter-restrictive measures had a negative impact on the development of export-import relations in the regions of the country, the Kursk region was no exception. The region has a significant foreign trade potential in accordance with its industrial and agricultural specialization, in connection with which the study of the features of the current development of foreign trade activity is an urgent area of analysis. In the course of the study, the features of the development of foreign trade activities of the Kursk region in 2014-2019 are considered, the prevailing trends and their causes are identified. It has been established that over the past 6 years, the foreign trade turnover of the Kursk region has varied in waves: the period of decline is due to a change in the political situation in 2014, which led to a significant decline in foreign trade activity in the period 2015-2016. However, by 2017, the pace began to recover, and in 2019 it exceeded the pre-crisis level. Since 2016, the region has a stable positive trade balance, which indicates a more active development of exports than imports and emphasizes the export orientation, as well as the implementation of the import substitution strategy. An assessment in the context of the main foreign trade directions showed that over the past 6 years there has been a structural shift: if earlier the main importing countries were the CIS countries, and the exporters were non-CIS countries, today the overwhelming share of foreign trade operations falls on the far abroad.

СЕЛЬСКОХОЗЯЙСТВЕННОЕ ПРОИЗВОДСТВО КУРСКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ: УСПЕХИ И ДОСТИЖЕНИЯ

In difficult economic and socio-political conditions, there is an increase in the dominant importance of Russian agriculture, not only as a guarantor of social stability in terms of ensuring food security, but also as a driver of the country's economic development in the strategic future. During the period of the spread of the coronavirus threat, many industries suffered significant losses, resulting in an economic downturn in most countries of the world. In this situation, agriculture can become a catalyst for the development of economic processes in regions with agricultural specialization, as the demand for food, both in the Russian market and abroad, will continue to increase. The article considers the results of agricultural production in the Kursk region, according to which the conclusion is made about significant success in a number of agricultural production areas. Against the background of initially lower provision of our region with resources and other natural and economic conditions in comparison with the leading regions, there are noticeable rates of positive changes in the agricultural sector of the Kursk region, which allowed the region to enter the top 10 in terms of sugar beet yields, grain and meat production. The key indicator of the analysis is the share of agricultural production in the region relative to the all-Russian similar indicator, the assessment of which revealed a more dynamic development of the Kursk region on average in comparison with other regions in the country. The study argues that it is necessary to increase the role of the state as a guarantor of stability and investment attractiveness of domestic agriculture in order to maintain positive dynamics of production and economic processes in the context of accelerating recovery from the pandemic crisis.

A Look at a Small Southern Country: Uruguay

In this work we take a look at a small southern country in Latin America: Uruguay, located between two large neighbors: Argentina and Brazil. In the paper some socio-economic features and historical facts about Uruguay were presented. Historically, the agricultural sector and export specialisation have been quite important for the country’s economic growth. Recently, services have become important too. The second part of the paper is entirely dedicated to the present situation, namely from March 2019, in which it was described how the COVID-19 pandemic has been dealt with in terms of the health and economic measures. Finally, some questions about the future of the pandemic and the country’s economy were posed.

Estimating Organic Farms’ Marketability from Limited Data – Evidence from Poland

Purpose: In 2019, the European Commission made organic farming one of its Green Deal's key elements. However, in order to develop, this sector requires a support system based on reliable data. This is difficult in countries where agricultural record-keeping is not obligatory - especially for small and medium-sized farms, the main organic producers. To meet this challenge, it seems necessary to develop a method of estimating organic farms' marketability potential. Design/Methodology/Approach: In its first part, the article describes the adaptation of the method commonly used (under Farm Accountancy Data Network) in farms that keep agricultural accounting records to the specific conditions of farms that do not. In the second part, the proposed proprietary method was verified by a sample of 2,576 organic farms from the Podlasie region in Poland. Findings: The rules and practices traditionally used for EU agricultural accountancy may constitute a significant contribution to developing a universal method of estimating the marketability potential of organic farms, which is especially important for countries where agricultural accounting record-keeping is not obligatory. Practical Implications: The proposed approach may contribute to better planning of support for organic farms under the CAP, and, consequently, to complete implementation of the objectives set out by the European Commission in the Agricultural Green Deal. Originality/Value: The article presents an innovative and practical way of determining the specialization and marketability level of organic farms that do not keep agricultural accounting records.

СІЛЬСЬКА МІСЦЕВІСТЬ У ЗОНІ ВПЛИВУ КИЇВСЬКОГО МЕТРОПОЛІСУ (ПОСИЛЕННЯ АГРОПРОДОВОЛЬЧОЇ ФУНКЦІЇ В УМОВАХ СУСПІЛЬНИХ ТРАНСФОРМАЦІЙ)

The research examines the changes that have taken place in rural areas in the area of influence of the Kyiv metropolis. Based on a comparative analysis of agricultural development (under the command-administrative system of management and the current state of the industry in market conditions) revealed the peculiarities of the formation and trends of changes in the agri-food function of suburban rural areas. At one time, a suburban agro-industrial complex was formed around the city of Kyiv in order to meet the needs of the urban population in low-transport products - meat and dairy products, vegetables and fruits. As a result, the agri-food function of the suburban area has strengthened. Subsequently, under the influence of changes in the agricultural system, the intensification of exports, preference was given to high-intensity agriculture, the production of export-oriented crops ‒ cereals, sunflower, canola, soybeans, corn. Production of products for the needs of the metropolis (vegetables, cereals, potatoes, fruits and berries) has significantly decreased, the role of the agri-food function of suburban rural areas has decreased. As a result of the research the directions of strengthening of agro-food function in the conditions of social transformations are offered. The main ones are: application of new approaches to the food supply of the metropolis with an emphasis on strengthening the role of suburban rural areas; change in the structure and specialization of agriculture; a significant increase in the level of industrial processing of agricultural raw materials; improvement of the marketing sphere taking into account market conditions, consumer demands; restricting the activities of agricultural holdings, increasing the role of farms; transition from soil-depleting agriculture to conservation, rational use of land resources, introduction of energy-saving technologies.

МОДЕЛИРОВАНИЕ ПОСЛЕДСТВИЙ ТРАНСФОРМАЦИИ СТРУКТУРЫ ЗЕМЛЕПОЛЬЗОВАНИЯ С ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕМ ОЦЕНОК ЭКОСИСТЕМНЫХ УСЛУГ

The study analyzes the possibilities of using cost estimates of ecosystem services to assess the effects of transformations in land use. The consequences of transformations were assessed by comparing the value of basic ecosystem services for different patterns of the land use structure, taking into account the fact that the volume of ecosystem services provided is limited by the ecosystem sustainability limits. To estimate ecosystem services, the methodology developed by the author was used. It is based on the indicators of agricultural land productivity and their value terms. The assessment was carried out for the Zarinsky district of Altai Krai, located at the junction of the West Siberian and Altai-Sayan physicogeographical countries. The study has revealed that the greatest value of basic ecosystem services in the region with agricultural specialization can be achieved by optimizing the agricultural load – reducing the share of arable land and increasing the share of forage land in the total area. It is proposed to implement this by involving plots of fallow lands in circulation: some of the plots are proposed to be used for reforestation, while others – for haying and grazing. This will balance the need to maximize agricultural production, while not reducing the sustainability of the ecosystems.

ПРОВЕДЕННЯ АГРАРНОГО ЗОНУВАННЯ ЗЕМЕЛЬ ПІД ЧАС УПРАВЛІННЯ ЗЕМЕЛЬНИМИ РЕСУРСАМИ СІЛЬСЬКОГОСПОДАРСЬКИХ ПІДПРИЄМСТВ

Agrarian zoning is a zoning of the land in the agricultural sector of the economy, based on climatic, economic and environmental indicators, includes homogeneous land with appropriate production potential, the level of ecological and anthropogenic load, characterized by a certain ratio of the land, type of agricultural production and agricultural specialization, the level of labor efficiency and allows to determine the public administration with the potential of production activities of agricultural enterprises. Agrarian zones have been formed on the territory of Sumy and Kharkiv regions. According to the affiliation of the enterprise to the agricultural zone the agricultural enterprise is provided with information on zoned crops and types of crop rotations that are most suitable for growing on its territory, implementation of technological measures for land use and protection, the level of impact of these measures on productivity and efficiency of land use. Ecological zoning provides restrictions on the cultivation of certain crops on the territory of the agricultural enterprise, taking into account its local characteristics and the optimal ratio of crops in crop rotations. Such economic indicators in the organization of the economy as specialization, concentration and integration of production with skillful application will help increase the efficiency of land use of agricultural producers. Socio-economic classification features of agricultural zoning will determine the level of employment and integration of labor by raising the qualification level of the population by sending them to study at the expense of enterprises in connection with the need to provide qualified personnel. The result is the investigation of scientific and methodological provision and the necessity to introduce a zonal approach of land resources management at agricultural enterprises. Component structure of agrarian zoning as branch land zoning in the agrarian sector of the economy for the purpose of administrative actions improvement as to competitive agricultural commodity producer formation was distinguished and revealed.

The Baikal region: economic specialization

The article presents the economic specialization of the Baikal region, which includes three constituent entities of the Russian Federation: Irkutsk oblast, the Republic of Buryatia and Zabaikalskii krai, which are united by the basin of Lake Baikal-a world natural heritage site. The problem of examining economic specialization is currently very relevant, which is explained by the need to increase the level of socio-economic development of the country and its individual territories, the efficiency of production and regional specialization. We analyzed the economic complex of the Baikal region, revealed its determining factors and the branches of industrial and agricultural specialization. Peculiarities of economic and geographical location, natural resource potential and natural and climatic conditions define the development of the economic complex of the Baikal region. All these factors determined the economy orientation to the development of extractive industries and industries related to their service. In recent years, this trend is reinforced. Agriculture in the Baikal region develops in extreme natural conditions: reduced biological activity, a significant part of which is characterized by low indicators of efficiency and production intensity. Agriculture in the Baikal region includes two main industries-animal husbandry and crop production, their shares in the gross agricultural output of Irkutsk oblast are approximately equal; but in Zabaikalskii krai and the Republic of Buryatia, the leading agricultural industry is animal husbandry and its share is over 70%. The cultivation of grain and vegetable crops also plays a significant role in creating a local food facility.

МЕХАНІЗМИ ТА РЕЖИМИ УПРАВЛІННЯ АГРОЕКОСИСТЕМНИМИ ПОСЛУГАМИ В БОЛГАРІЇ

The products and the variety of direct and indirect benefits that humans receive from nature and the various ecosystems are commonly known as ecosystem services. Agricultural ecosystems of different types and their specific “agro-ecosystem” services are among the most widespread in the world. In recent years increasing attention is given to the system of (“good”) governance as a key to achieving public, collective, corporate, and private goals in relation to conservation and improvement of (agro)ecosystem services. Nevertheless, in Bulgaria, like in many other countries, there are few studies on the specific mechanisms, modes, factors, and efficiency of agro-ecosystem survives governance. This article presents the initial results of a large-scale study on the governance of diverse ecosystem services in Bulgarian agriculture. Firstly, it identifies the type, amount, and importance of various ecosystem services maintained and “produced” by the Bulgarian farms. The study has found out that country’s farms provide a great number of essential ecosystem services among which provisioning food and feed, and conservation of elements of the natural environment prevail. Secondly, it identifies and assesses the efficiency and complementarities of specific modes and mechanisms of governance of ecosystem services used by agricultural holdings. The study has found out that a great variety of private, market, collective, public and hybrid modes of governance of farm activity related to agroecosystem services are applied. There is significant differentiation of employed managerial forms depending on the type of ecosystem services and the specialization of agricultural farms. Furthermore, the management of agroecosystem services is associated with a considerable increase in the production and transaction costs of participating farms as well as big socio-economic and environmental effects for agricultural holdings and other parties. The factors that mostly stimulate the activity of agricultural producers in Bulgaria for protection of (agro)ecosystems services are participation in public support programs, access to farmers’ advice, professional training, available information, and innovation received direct subsidies from the EU and national government, personal conviction and satisfaction, positive experience of others, long-term and immediate benefits for the farm, and integration with suppliers, buyers, and processors. The suggested holistic and interdisciplinary framework for analyzing the system of governance of agro-ecosystem services is to be further extended and improved, and more widely and periodically applied in the future. The latter requires systematic indepth multidisciplinary research in this new area, as well as the collection of original micro- and macro information on ecosystem survives, forms, efficiency, and factors of their management. The accuracy of analyzes is to be improved by increasing representativeness through enlarging the number of surveyed farms and related agents, applying statistical methods, special “training” of participants, etc. as well as improving the official system for collecting agricultural, agro-economic, and agrienvironmental information in the country.

Placement and concentration in agriculture: latest trends (case study by Russian egg poultry)

The article presents the results of research on the location and territorial concentration in agriculture. The research object is egg poultry farming, which has been one of the most stable agriculture branches in Russia for decades. The method of modified location quotients was used to analyze territorial concentration. The analysis showed that the placement of egg poultry had changed drastically in 2004–2019. Russian regions have employed opposed strategies. In many regions, egg poultry farms have been closed or repurposed. Several regions are successfully developing the industry, and egg production in these territories is several times higher than domestic needs. Ten regions of Russia with a location quotient higher than 2.0 were identified. The volume of interregional exchange is growing at a faster pace. In 2004, the regions exported 30% of the egg production, and by 2019, the share increased to 51%. Location specialization and optimization of egg farms provide economic and social benefits. With the growth of the size of enterprises, their financial stability increases. Cost-saving opportunities, increased egg production, and competition between producers in the domestic market help to hold prices down.

ТРУДОВЫЕ РЕСУРСЫ СЕВЕРНОЙ ДЕРЕВНИ В 1939–1959 гг. (НА МАТЕРИАЛАХ ВОЛОГОДСКОЙ И КИРОВСКОЙ ОБЛАСТЕЙ)

The article attempts to show changes in the number and composition of the rural population of Vologda and Kirov Oblasts during the period of history crucial for the village, the key event of which was the Great Patriotic War. To analyze the demographic processes that took place in Vologda and Vyatka villages, a wide range of sources were used, based on published and archived statistical materials. The published data include the all-Union population censuses of 1939 and 1959, which contain information about the total number of inhabitants of the regions and show the rate of urban and rural population. Information about the number of citizens mobilized to the front and those who died during the war years is taken from the federal and regional memorial books. Data from reports of civil registry offices and resettlement departments allowed characterizing changes in the natural migration of the rural population from the village to the city. The annual reports of the collective farms helped to form an idea of transformations of the working-age population and the gender and age composition of the villagers. The analysis of the presented sources allowed drawing the following conclusions. By the early 1940s, in the majority of the country's regions, including the areas under study, the rural population dominated, and their agricultural specialization determined their belonging to the collective farm system. The usual way of life was disrupted by the war, most of the citizens mobilized to the front were called up from rural areas. This situation had a negative impact on the village labor resources. In the village, there was a shortage of male workers, which was compensated by increasing the burden on women, children, and the elderly to meet the state agricultural indicators. The reduction of labour force affected the quality of work leading to delays in its timely completion. The end of the war and the Red Army demobilization could not fill the village labor resources as many men perished on the war fronts. The state policy in the post-war emergency period did not change in relation to the village, which continued to be used as a labor and raw material resource for urban reconstruction and development. The rural residents' active migration in the post-war period led to a further reduction in the population of rural settlements. The reduction of rural labor and the state policy of enlarging collective farms contributed to the formation of a new settlement pattern, demonstrating the decay of small villages. Disintegration of the peasantry in villages, which collectivization had started, entered the final straight in the 1940s-1950s.

ЦИФРОВАЯ ДИФФЕРЕНЦИАЦИЯ РЕГИОНОВ СЕЛЬСКОХОЗЯЙСТВЕННОЙ СПЕЦИАЛИЗАЦИИ: ПРОБЛЕМЫ И ПУТИ ИХ РЕШЕНИЯ

According to global trends, the growing level of technological equipment of agricultural production requires a reduction in the chain of introduction of all newly created or improved technologies by reducing the territorial imbalances of digital development. An analysis of the regulatory framework of the EU member states confirms that for most regions of the EU, the transition from support to large agricultural organizations to the priority development of small and medium-sized businesses is seen as a key area of economic development. The Russian agrifood complex is characterized by technological heterogeneity and high differentiation of regions of agricultural specialization in terms of the level of innovation activity. Based on data from open sources, the subjects of the Russian Federation were compared in terms of the size and specific weight of the sown (planting) area, on which elements of precision farming are used. It was revealed that at the moment, in most constituent entities of the Russian Federation, digitalization means are used disproportionately to the size of their sown areas. It has been confirmed that the regional imbalance in the use of digital technologies is due to the predominance of small businesses in the structure of crop production. Proposals for reducing the digital inequality between the regions of the Russian Federation of agricultural specialization are substantiated. The analysis of the principles of building a European thematic platform for smart specialization, its impact on strengthening interregional cooperation in the field of digitalization of agriculture. The necessity of transferring the experience of the EU member states to reduce the digital divide between the regions of the Russian Federation and increase the innovative activity of enterprises of the national agri-food complex has been substantiated. It is concluded that the creation of an interregional innovation ecosystem will clearly identify the gaps in the value chains of each participant, identify the general directions of technical modernization of agricultural pro- duction and concretize areas for joint investment in projects with high potential returns.

Investment analysis of a piglet producer farm – a Hungarian case study

The pig population in Hungary was about 8 million in 1990, while this number dropped to only 2.8 million by 2018. The previously so successful integrated domestic pig farming has almost completely disappeared and most of the smaller farms still operating in the 1990s are no longer functioning. At present, a process of concentration can be observed, which was accompanied by the further specialization of pig farming. The main profile of most pig farms is fattening, but there is a smaller number of farms in Hungary today specialized for piglet production, the successful operation of which requires significantly more expertise and more complex technology.
 The main aim of this study is to present the production and economic indicators of a pig farm specialized in piglet production in Hungary as a result of a greenfield investment in the current economic environment, on a case study basis. For this purpose, an economic simulation was prepared based on primary data collection, operating on a deterministic basis, modelling the production and economic processes of the farm. The performed calculation does not derive the economic indicators of the activity from accounting records, but assigns the prices of natural inputs used on the basis of technological data. Primary data and information collection (e.g. technological data, input and output prices, unit cost items, etc.) took place between 2018-2019.
 At the purchase prices of pigs in the last two years, which have increased significantly due to the African Swine Fever (ASF), the majority of pig farms in Hungary have an outstanding profit-making capacity. The physical efficiency indicators of the analysed pig farm are almost identical to the average data of such farms in the Netherlands, which has one of the most developed pig industry. The income of the examined pig farm at farm level is about 734 thousand EUR, i.e. 232 EUR per sow. Moreover, this activity is profitable even without subsidies. As a result, the greenfield investment pays off in the 8th year by default (average scenario). The investment has a Net Present Value (NPVr=3%) of EUR 2,609 thousand for 10 years, an Internal Rate of Return of 8.5%, and a Profitability Index (PIr=3%) of 1.3. At the same time, risk factors such as sales prices, output and capacity utilization, and feed costs should be taken into consideration as in extreme cases the return on investment may be unfavourable (pessimistic scenario).
 JEL code: D24, M11, Q12

Investment analysis of a piglet producer farm – a Hungarian case study

The pig population in Hungary was about 8 million in 1990, while this number dropped to only 2.8 million by 2018. The previously so successful integrated domestic pig farming has almost completely disappeared and most of the smaller farms still operating in the 1990s are no longer functioning. At present, a process of concentration can be observed, which was accompanied by the further specialization of pig farming. The main profile of most pig farms is fattening, but there is a smaller number of farms in Hungary today specialized for piglet production, the successful operation of which requires significantly more expertise and more complex technology. The main aim of this study is to present the production and economic indicators of a pig farm specialized in piglet production in Hungary as a result of a greenfield investment in the current economic environment, on a case study basis. For this purpose, an economic simulation was prepared based on primary data collection, operating on a deterministic basis, modelling the production and economic processes of the farm. The performed calculation does not derive the economic indicators of the activity from accounting records, but assigns the prices of natural inputs used on the basis of technological data. Primary data and information collection (e.g. technological data, input and output prices, unit cost items, etc.) took place between 2018-2019. At the purchase prices of pigs in the last two years, which have increased significantly due to the African Swine Fever (ASF), the majority of pig farms in Hungary have an outstanding profit-making capacity. The physical efficiency indicators of the analysed pig farm are almost identical to the average data of such farms in the Netherlands, which has one of the most developed pig industry. The income of the examined pig farm at farm level is about 734 thousand EUR, i.e. 232 EUR per sow. Moreover, this activity is profitable even without subsidies. As a result, the greenfield investment pays off in the 8th year by default (average scenario). The investment has a Net Present Value (NPVr=3%) of EUR 2,609 thousand for 10 years, an Internal Rate of Return of 8.5%, and a Profitability Index (PIr=3%) of 1.3. At the same time, risk factors such as sales prices, output and capacity utilization, and feed costs should be taken into consideration as in extreme cases the return on investment may be unfavourable (pessimistic scenario). JEL code: D24, M11, Q12

СУЧАСНІ НАПРЯМКИ ЗАБЕЗПЕЧЕННЯ КОНКУРЕНТОСПРОМОЖНОСТІ АГРАРНОЇ ПРОДУКЦІЇ УКРАЇНИ

Competitiveness should be understood as the ability of an individual entity to function successfully in a competitive environment, having an absolute or relative advantage over the “main players” – key competitors in the market. It is determined that the competitiveness of products is associated with the appropriate level of its quality, which is better than analogues to meet the needs of consumers. Another component is the cost of products, the nature of which is more variable compared to quality, which explains the formation of quality throughout the production cycle under the influence of mostly objective factors. The cost of production, which consists of cost and profit, has a higher level of variability due to the dependence of the level of profit on the state of market demand. In terms of profit, the competitiveness of products is closely linked to the success of the enterprise, its stability and development potential. Another aspect of product competitiveness is considered market parameters. Thus, “hard” and “soft” factors of product competitiveness were distinguished, where the first group is represented by the quality and cost of production, and the second – profit and marketing. The analysis of the existing criteria of competitiveness of goods allowed to add to the identified factors the following: social targeting, consumer novelty, informativeness, reliability, safety for consumers and the environment, product image. Features of ensuring the competitiveness of products in the agricultural sector are considered. The dependence of agricultural specialization on the location determines the critical dependence of product quality on the resource potential, which requires preservation and reproduction. This necessitates the inclusion of environmentally responsible components of responsible land use in the ways of ensuring the competitiveness of products. It is determined that the most difficult factor in managing the competitiveness of agricultural products is the price due to the peak load in the collection of crops and the need for significant storage reserves for storage of products for a long time. Ways to manage this factor are proposed to consider the development of commodity exchanges, the use of financial instruments, risk insurance. Horizontal integration for small farms and vertical integration for agricultural enterprises are recognized as additional ways to ensure the competitiveness of agricultural products.

Smallholders’ perceptions of policies for preserving the traditional Ongole cattle breed of Indonesia

Agricultural policies can only be effective if intended beneficiaries are sufficiently aware of them. This basic condition for policy success is substantially challenged by smallholder farmers’ lack of awareness of existing support schemes. We studied the perceptions of 600 farmers of preservation policies for the traditional Indonesian Ongole cattle breed. We measured farmers’ knowledge of existing policies, their perceived ease of participation, their participation level and their satisfaction with the benefits obtained. We found that the target group has little awareness of existing policies. Policy awareness increases with education, the less remote the farm is, and with increasing specialization in cattle farming. We recommend therefore that policymakers should simplify and redesign existing policy schemes to create one coordinated policy. The various support schemes currently implemented should be combined in this policy and it should be presented in such a way that is easily understood by farmers. Incentives for Ongole breeders should be tailored, the establishment of farmers groups facilitated, and a breeding and selection programme initiated to improve the genetic potential of Ongole for domestic beef production.

ЕАЭО ЖАҒДАЙЫНДА ҚАЗАҚСТАННЫҢ ЭКСПОРТҚА БАҒДАРЛАНҒАН АУЫЛ ШАРУАШЫЛЫҒЫ ӨНІМІН ӨНДІРУ

The system of measures of public support for production of export-oriented agricultural products in Kazakhstan and the EAEU member States is considered, directions for its improvement are determined. Indicators of production of gross domestic product, gross agricultural output, the share of crop production industry in it on average for 2015-2019 are presented. The prospects for export of domestic food have been studied; for this purpose, it is necessary to strengthen agricultural specialization of each industry. The authors note that phytosanitary measures are currently not regulated, there is no unified method for calculating the level of support, unified requirements for obtaining breeding products, a unified procedure for animal identification, unified rules for laboratory research and veterinary control. It is required to systematize and harmonize the existing tools and mechanisms for the development of the branches of agro-industrial complex of the republic in order to form a single market for the States of the Eurasian Economic Union, as well as develop sectoral programs. The article substantiates the need for systematic public support for the development of agro-industrial complex, aimed at meeting the needs of the domestic market and the implementation of centralized policy to promote exports. It is shown that environmental friendliness is one of the main competitive advantages of food products in the republic, contributing to the strengthening of Kazakhstan's positions on external sales market. The structure of exports of Kazakhstani agricultural products should be focused on reducing the share of raw materials in favor of agricultural products with high added value. In industries with high export potential, large specialized commodity zones and optimal flows of goods will be formed in order to ensure the country's food security.

Who applies for afforestation subsidies? Analysis of the age of beneficiaries of the Rural Development Program from 2004–2018

Abstract In Poland, the afforestation rate is slowing down from year to year. An analysis of the demographic structure of land owners suitable for afforestation may contribute to a better recognition of trends and needs in order to increase the effectiveness of National Programme for the Augmentation of Forest Cover implementation, and thus increase interest in RDP activities. The aim of the study was to verify whether interest in afforestation among farmers is the same across the country in different age groups. The data presented in the publication come from the resources of the Agency for Restructuring and Modernization of Agriculture (ARiMR). The data covered the years 2004–2018 and were sorted by: voivodships (16), age group of beneficiaries of subsidies (4 groups), year of submitting the application (15 years) and the number of applications submitted. Beneficiaries were divided into four age groups: up to 30 years old, 31–40 years old, 41–60 and older than 60 years. Interest in afforestation changed in the period after Poland’s accession to the European Union. In recent years, there has been a significant decrease in the number of applications for afforestation subsidies submitted. There are also significant differences between the voivodships in the number of applications submitted. Farmers from eastern and southern Poland are more active in submitting applications for afforestation, and will reduce the so-called Recovered Territories in the western, northern and north-eastern part of Poland. Most afforestation in the entire analysed period is carried out by farmers aged 41–60 years. In the initial period, more applications were submitted by farmers of age over 60 years. In recent years, however, young farmers, that is, up to 40 years, are more interested in afforestation, than other groups. To increase interest in afforestation, more support should be directed to young farmers who, as part of farm specialization, may receive additional incentives for afforestation of land that is less useful to them.

Agrobiodiversity conservation with illegal-drug crops: An approach from the prisons in Oaxaca, Mexico

Drawing on political-ecological vulnerability theory, this paper analyzes the impact of illegal-drug cultivation and its related violence on smallholder agrobiodiversity in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico. Oaxaca is a global agrobiodiversity hotspot where cannabis and opium poppy have been widely cultivated for decades. The study is based on 76 structured/semi-structured interviews with imprisoned farmers, harvest gatherers, and former soldiers in four state prisons. Results show that illegal-drug crops and native-food crops complement each other until a threshold of violence is crossed, which leads to the abandonment of agriculture due to murder, imprisonment, and out-migration. The specialization of smallholder agriculture in illegal-drug crops tends to favor crossing the threshold of violence. In most municipalities in this study, however, rather a diversification process took place in which illegal-drug crops were incorporated to food production systems, reducing both the exposure and the sensitivity of smallholders to structural and direct violence. Other adaptation strategies involved local organization and militarization of smallholders for collective-risk management and territorial control. Ultimately, by comparing five vulnerability scenarios, this paper argues that the combination of peasant organization, militarization, and crop/livelihood diversification in Oaxaca mitigates the violent agrarian change associated with this illegal economy, while conserving agrobiodiversity.

Railroads, specialization, and population growth: evidence from the first globalization

We explore how railroads affected population growth during the first globalization (1865–1920) in Chile. We look at areas with a strong comparative advantage in agriculture using novel data that document 60 years of railroad construction. Using instrumental variables, we present four main findings. First, railroads increased both urban and rural population growth. Second, the impact was stronger in areas with more potential for agricultural expansion. Third, railroads increased specialization in agriculture when combined with a high level of the real exchange rate. And fourth, railroads had little effect on human capital and fertility. These results suggest that the effects of transportation technologies depend on existing macroeconomic conditions.