Simonas Daukantas Research Articles

Lithuanian Proverbs as a Source of Natural Law Regulations in the Historical Writings of Simonas Daukantas

The purpose of this article is to argue that Simonas Daukantas used the material of Lithuanian folklore, mainly proverbs, as a historical source in his works on the history of Lithuania, and analyze his reasons for doing that. Daukantas used the Lithuanian proverbs as a source for studying socio-moral and legal attitudes, and elucidating their role in the process of history. He was most interested in identification and clarification of Lithuanian customary law norms and natural principles, relying on proverbs. Folklore data was instrumental for Daukantas in proving that the social order in ancient Lithuanian history was based on natural law, and there were natural regulations that fostered the natural human freedom and industriousness.

Simono Daukanto 1846 m. spaudinio Gyvatų didžiųjų karvaidų ortografija. Palimpsestinės raidės

In 1846, Simonas Daukantas (1793–1864) published his translation of Cornelius Nepos’ Lives of Eminent Commanders (in Lithuanian Giwatas Didiujû Karwaidû, GDKs) at Christian Hintze’s printing press in St Petersburg. This study analyses the orthography in GDKs. There was a previous translation of the book by Daukantas in around 1834 (about 12 years earlier), and most of it survives in the shape of a copy by an anonymous hand. The book was printed from a later manuscript that did not survive. It is obvious that Daukantas had the earlier translation in front of him while preparing the publication. But even if he copied some features of his old orthography, he also often changed the orthography according to his later altered preferences. Another book by Daukantas published the same year (1846) was Pasakas Phedro (PaPhs), a translation of The Fables of Phaedrus. The manuscript of PaPhs was prepared in Daukantas’ own quite renewed orthography (compared to his older manuscript of the same fables Pasakas Padraus from the first half of 1836).

Aleksandro Guagninio ir Motiejaus Strijkovskio kronikos – Simono Daukanto šaltiniai

The article discusses the sources of the chronicles of Motiejus Strijkovskis (Polish: Maciej Stryjkowski, Latin: Matthias Stricovius, Matys Strycovius, Matys Strykowius, etc., 1547–c.1593) and Alessandro Guagnini (full name: Alessandro Guagnini dei Rizzoni; 1534 [1538]–1614), which were cited by Simonas Daukantas. Daukantas wrote four works of a historical nature and quoted Strijkovskis in all of them; as for Guagnini’s chronicle, he did not quote it in his first work Darbay senuju Lituwiu yr Zemaycziu (The Deeds of the Early Lithuanians and Samogitians, 1822; hereinafter Darbai) and in his last work Pasakojimas apej Wejkałus Lietuwiû tautos senowie (A Narrative about the Deeds in the Ancient Times of the Lithuanian Nation, ~1850–1854; hereinafter Pasakojimas). The question is raised whether the ambiguous evaluation of the authorship of Guagnini’s Sarmatiae Europeae descriptio (1574–1578; hereinafter SED) might have influenced Daukantas, which led him to rely more heavily on Strijkovskis’s work during certain periods of the writing of his historical works. In order to determine the extent to which Daukantas was aware of Strijkovskis’s accusation of plagiarism against the Italian chronicler, the dynamics of the (non) citation of the works by these two authors in Daukantas’s works and in the excerpts from books are discussed. Since Guagnini’s work (and its fragments) was more frequently reprinted in Europe, even though its authorship was raising doubts, researchers are facing difficulties as to the source of citations. The article discusses the editions of fragments of Guagnini’s SED and establishes that Daukantas translated Guagnini’s ‘Ducatus Samogitiae’, which he used in BUDĄ Senowęs-Lëtuwiû Kalnienû ĩr Ƶámajtiû (The Character of the Early Lithuanians, Samogitians, and Highlanders, 1845; hereinafter Būdas), from the first edition of the 1627 book RESPUBLICA, Siue Status Regni POLONIÆ, LITUANIÆ, PRUSSIÆ, LIVONIÆ etc. diuerſorum Autorum compiled by Johannes de Laet.

Odinian Sources of Simonas Daukantas

The article discusses the sources used by the national Lithuanian historian Simonas Daukantas (1793–1864) which determined the inclusion of Odin in the ranks of Lithuanian/Baltic cultural heroes in the work BUDĄ Senowęs-Lëtuwiû Kalnienû ĩr Ƶámajtiû (en. The Character of the Ancient Lithuanians–Highlanders and Lowlanders, 1845). The first source discussed is the article “De l’ère primitive des législations sacerdotales” (“On the legislative power of the priests of primeval times”) published in the magazine “Le Catholique” in 1826, on which S. Daukantas mainly relied when discussing the figure of Odin. Upon investigation, this source does not consider Odin to be the hero of the Baltic people, either. It is speculated that S. Daukantas was impressed by the laconic biography of Odin and the note added at the end that the royal families of Saxony and Denmark, the Merovingian dynasty and the Lombard princes included Odin in their genealogy. S. Daukantas analogously states that Odin is also a Lithuanian hero because, even ‘now’, there are people with the surname Odinas living in Lithuania and Samogitia. Actually, S. Daukantas’s mother was née Odinaitė.This article further discusses two other sources: Geschichte Preußens (1827, vol. 1) by Johannes Voigt (1786–1863), and Geschichte von Littauen, Kurland und Liefland (1785) by Ludwig Albrecht Gebhardi (1735–1802). It was determined that only J. Voigt briefly indicated that Odin founded Asgard near Daugava. S. Daukantas adopted this opinion in his work.On February 12, 1845, in a letter to Teodoras Narbutas (1784–1864), S. Daukantas reproached him for not including Odin in the ranks of Lithuanian cultural heroes and mentioned Le Catholique and Jntrodukcyi Maleta do historyi Dunskiej as important sources for the research pertaining to the possible Baltic origins of Odin. This inspires a hypothesis that S. Daukantas made a mistake in specifying the name of the Swiss-born historian Paul Henri Mallet because he did not write about Odin as a Lithuanian/Baltic hero in his work on Danish history. The article investigates which author’s introduction to a book on Danish history led S. Daukantas to a belief that he found information about the Lithuanian/Baltic Odin. It must have been an authoritative historian because S. Daukantas did not change his opinion about Odin when he wrote Pasakojimas apej Wejkałus Lietuwiû tautos senowie (Stories about Events in Ancient Lithuania, 1850) and emphasized that Northern writers refer to Odin as having lived and worked in Lithuania. After getting acquainted with Peter Friedrich Suhm’s introduction (Einleitung oder kritische Muthmaſsungen über die teste Abstammung und Geschichte der Nordischen Nation) to Geschichte der Dänen (1803), the study reaches the conclusion that it determined S. Daukantas’s decision about Odin’s Baltic origins. It is likely that an interdisciplinary study of the figure of Odin would finally allow us to confirm or reject this belief of S. Daukantas.

Simono Daukanto 1846‑ųjų Pasakų Fedro rankraščio ir spaudinio ortografija

T H E ORTHOGRAPHY OF BOTH MANUSCRIPT AND PRINTED BOOK (1846) OF SIMONAS DAUKANTAS’S LITHUANIAN TRANSLATION OF THE FABLES OF PHAEDRUS Simonas Daukantas prepared two manuscripts of his Lithuanian translation of the Fables of Phaedrus: one in the first half of 1836 (PaP), and another ten years later in about the first half of 1846 (PaPhr). Daukantas exploited two different orthographic tactics in tapping the first manuscript (PaP) as the source for the second one (PaPhr): (1) either to substitute older orthographic peculiarities for his own more recently introduced spelling equivalents (more frequent approach), or (2) just to keep them (more seldom).

DIONIZO POŠKOS RAUDŲ ISTORINĖ TOPIKA

The article investigates the source of the historiographical topic of heroic paganism in the laments/elegies of Dionizas Poška (1764–1830). It is known that Poška read the manuscript of the first history of Lithuania (1822) by Simonas Daukantas (1793–1864). The article hypothesises that the choice of Poška’s written language ‘to lean towards the Samogitian dialect’, and the increase in a lexicon characteristic of the historiographical genre in the laments, are connected with his reading Daukantas’ manuscript. Since until now researchers into Daukantas’ legacy do not agree on the date of the completion of his first manuscript history, it is believed that research of this kind will make it possible to clarify it. The research leads to the conclusion that Poška read the ‘History of Lithuania’ by Daukantas in 1824, because in verse dating from that year we find a lexicon which is characteristic of Daukantas’ work. In elegies written after 1824, Poška found Lithuanian equivalents of the traditional topics of the heroic and lost nation, which are often taken from the text of Daukantas, and are not literal translations of Polish literature. Daukantas’ text inspired Poška to talk about a lost Golden Age, and so he can be considered a pioneer of Lithuanian historical elegy. Following Daukantas, the poet learned to replace rhetorical writing with an authentic expression of thought characteristic of Romantic authors.

Топография Симонаса Даукантаса в Санкт-Петербурге

Simonas Daukantas’s Topography of St Petersburg S u m m a r y Simonas Daukantas spent 15 years (between 1834 and 1850) living in St Petersburg, where he worked as an assistant registrar at the Senate. This article highlights the exact addresses of where Daukantas lived and published books in St Petersburg. The address of the place where Daukantas lived in 1837 is published for the first time; the drawing of the building has been obtained, the landlord identified. Apparently, in 1837 Daukantas lived in the building owned by Marya Nelsen, the wife of chief (regiment) doctor Gavrila Nelsen, at the intersection of Kazanskaya street and Voznesensky prospect (or Voznesensky avenue; the exact address: Voznesensky Ave 15–17/Kazanskaya St 45). The article features the drawing of this building and contains information about its condition, which shows that in late 1830s and in 1840s the building was in an appalling state of repair. Marya Nelsen died in 1840, and the building was assigned to a care agency. Some of the tenants continued to live at the building for some time, only to move out later; apparently, Daukantas was among those who vacated this residence. More details are provided about Daukantas’s place of residence in 1842 (address: Malaya Masterskaya 9, the building near the Church of St Stanislaus), providing the drawing of the building and publishing pictures of how it looks today, revealing the characteristics of the building’s architecture, including those from the time when Daukantas lived there. The building next to St Stanislaus Church at Malaya Masterskaya 9 was built in 1841–1842. In one letter of 1842 Daukantas claimed his residency at this address, so we suggest that he might have moved in right after the completion of construction. The addresses of three printing houses where Daukantas published his books have been identified. On top of that, details of what the buildings looked like during Daukantas’s time there have been obtained. Christian Hintze’s printing house was located at Durygina’s house at Nevsky prospect 8. The building has survived to this date virtually intact. Ivanov’s lithograph based on Sadovnikov’s picture represents the view of the building in 1830s, the approximate time of Daukantas’s book publications at Hintze’s printing house. Later, the enterprise was acquired by Merkushev. The printing house of Karl Kray was located in the corner of Frost’s building at Malaya Morskaya 12/Gorokhovaya 9. Analysis of the archive drawings of the buildings has provided some insights into what the building’s appearance was during Daukantas’s time in St Petersburg. Before 1850, Gretsch’s house (current address: Moika 92; the building was demolished in early 1960s) was home to Eduard Pratz’s printing house. The blueprints of the building that were found in the archives shed a light on what the building looked like in 1840s and 1850s, when Daukantas would publish his books there. Gretsch’s own publishing house was in the same building. The archives contain blueprints of Gretsch’s house on Moika riverfront, showing the appearance of the building at the time of Daukantas’s printing his books there: the façade off Moika, the courtyard, and the plan of the building. Giedrius Subačius has noted that 1841–1845 were the years when Daukantas was the most consistent in his orthography. Βetter living conditions in the new building constructed in 1842 most probably had allowed Daukantas to improve the quality and efficiency of his work. It is also worth noting that the publishing houses were close to the places where Daukantas lived and worked. All these buildings are located in the Admiralteisky district of St Petersburg.

Johanneso Voigto Geschichte Preußens (1827–1839) nuorodos Simono Daukanto veikale BUDĄ Senowęs-Lëtuwiû Kalnienû ĩr Ƶámajtiû (1845)

REFERENCES TO JOHANNES VOIGT’S GESCHICHTE PREUSSENS (1827–1839) IN BUDĄ SENOWĘS-LËTUWIÛ KALNIENÛ ĨR ƵÁMAJTIÛ (1845) BY SIMONAS DAUKANTAS S u m m a r y The article addresses citations from vol. I, III , IV , VI of Johannes Voigt’s (1786–1863) Geschichte Preußens von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Untergange der Herrschaft des Deutschen Ordens (Königsberg, 9 vols., 1827–1839) in BUDĄ Senowęs–Lëtuwiû Kalnienû ir Ƶámajtiû (1845) by Simonas Daukantas. The goal of the article is to use the inventory of the references made by Daukantas to identify the places in the original GP text, revise the references, discuss the nature of the citations, and the impact of the tract as such. The article also touches upon the history of Daukantas citing Voigt’s GP in his prior work, ISTORYJE ƵEMAYTYSZKA (1834). The article analyses 20 references to Voigt’s text. Daukantas identified the page number wrong in seven references out of the twenty; four of the references were one page number off; one did not specify the volume. Nonetheless, all of these references were successfully revised and corrected. Analysis of the nature of reliance on GP has suggested that Daukantas treated this tract as a font of new resources. Daukantas used GP to recite handwritten work by medieval chroniclers or Königsberg scholars, university graduates or residents of the region that he was having difficulty accessing himself. The prevalence of work by Königsberg scholars shows that Daukantas valued this historiographical tradition first and foremost. In his reliance on GP references, Daukantas would obtain and quote some of the sources from the original texts. Comparing the indirect citations by Daukantas and the original text, one could say that it was only once (Bd 214) that he did not add information from elsewhere in the GP text or other sources to the text. Even though Daukantas did not have any open discussions with his predecessor, the ample revisions and the content of the supplementary material point to his critical stance. Relying on the narrative historic tradition (‘noumone patioie tautoie tebesąntĩ patwĩrten’ Bd 214), the Lithuanian language and folklore (‘kou dar pates patarles kałbo tebesąntes twĩrtĩn’ Bd, Pratarme 9) as sources of Lithuanian history with the highest degree of authority, he revised the text written by Voigt from a German position. However, the expression of Germanism in GP helped Daukantas create images of Lithuanianism. The GP text and the ample explanations given in footnotes sparked Daukantas’s creativity. GP was an example of composition of material to Daukantas. Drawing inspiration from GP, Daukantas discussed the history of the formation of the region, the characteristics of the landscape, delineated the borders of Lithuania, talked about the daily living and about the holidays, gave a lot of attention to the dynamics and sanctuaries of the ancient Lithuanian religion, the history of regional institutions, commerce as the key element of the viability of the state. The importance of the substrate of the ancient Prussians and crusaders in building the new German nation that Voigt had highlighted helped Daukantas understand how the development of the Lithuanian identity could not bypass the culture of Prussian Lithuanians, or rather that of the Balts in general. Daukantas assimilated many concepts that, despite being Herder-esque, had been assimilated by Voigt and made relevant in the historic tract, such as: the history of the nation (‘tautos wejkałus’ Bd 127), the culture of the nation (‘akyłómą sawo tautoie’ Bd 236), the manner of the nation (‘pagał budo sawo tautós’ Bd 190), the freedom of the nation (‘tautû lousybę’ Bd, Pratarme 9). GP’s expression helped Daukantas create multiple romantic images that later made their way into the golden fund of Lithuanian literature.

Kito įvaizdis Simono Daukanto „Būde senovės lietuvių, kalnėnų ir žemaičių“

The article deals with the specific features of other’s portrait in Simonas Daukantas’ “The Character of the ancient Highlanders and Samogitians”. There is possibility of creative synthesis between us and other, however, the latest is usually understood as an enemy. The enemy represents another system – the world of vagueness and danger. The extreme position of estrangement is the position of crusader. The enemy is pictured in one of two ways: either stereotypic or creative (using mostly negative semantic elements). Despite the obviuos patriotic mood of S. Daukantas’s text it is not chauvinistic – other nations are criticized only if they act dishonourably.

Simono Daukanto Patarlių ortografijos lūžis Sankt Peterburge (~1838–1841)

SIMONAS DAUKANTAS’S ORTHOGRAPHIC SWITCH OF PROVERBS IN ST PETERSBURG (ca. 1838 – 1841) Simonas Daukantas (1793–1864) moved to St Petersburg in 1835. Impermanence and competition of variants were typical for his orthography. During the four initial years in that city, Daukantas managed to shape at least two consecutive distinct Lithuanian orthographies of his own: (1) of the Beginning Years in St Petersburg (1835–1836) and (2) of his First Printed Books (ca. the 2nd half of 1836 to 1838). This study analyzes Daukantas’s third period of significant orthographic transformations during his residency in St Petersburg—a prolonged four-year phase of orthographic modifications that can be termed the Orthographic Switch of Proverbs (ca. 1838–1841), since the change was best reflected in the draft lists of proverbs. The major orthographic data was collected from Daukantas’s manuscript Margumynai (Miscellanea, p. 156–166, LLTIBR: f. 1 – SD 27) and printed book Abecieła Lîjtuwiû-Kalnienû ir Żiamajtiû Kałbos (The Primer of the Lithuanian Language—of Highlanders and of Lowlanders, St Petersburg, 1842).

Simono Daukanto BUDĄ Senowęs-Letuwiu Kalnienu ĩr Ƶamajtiu (1845) šaltiniai

SOURCES OF SIMONAS DAUKANTAS’S BUDĄ SENOWĘS-LËTUWIÛ KALNIENÛ ĨR ƵÁMAJTIÛ (1845) The article investigates Simonas Daukantas’s (1793–1864) BUDĄ Senowęs-Lëtuwiû Kalnienû ĩr Ƶámajtiû (The Character of the Lithuanian Highlanders and Samogitians of the Old Times, 1845; hereafter Bd) with regards to genre, origin of the title, and the dominant German sources of the work. It claims that Daukantas conceived Bd because he understood that the future of Lithuania is closely related to its past. A single, united version of Lithuanian history, accepted by the whole nation, was necessary for the development of Lithuanian national identity and collective feeling. The history, which up until then had not been published in Lithuanian, could have helped to create the contours of a new society by presenting the paradigmatic events of the past. The collective awareness of the difference between the present and the past (and future) should have given the Lithuanian community an incentive to move forward. Daukantas wrote Bd quickly, between 1842 and May 28, 1844, because he drew on his previous work ISTORYJE ƵEMAYTYSZKA (History of the Lithuanian Lowlands, ~1831–1834; IƵ). Based on the findings of previous researchers of Daukantas’s works, after studying the dominant sources of Bd and examining their nature, this article comes to the conclusion that the work has features of both cultural history and regional historiography. The graphically highlighted form of the word “BUDĄ” used in the work’s title should be considered the author’s code. Daukantas, influenced by the newest culturological research and comparative linguistics of the 18th–19th centuries, propagated that Lithuanians originate from India and, like many others, found evidence of this in the Lithuanian language and culture. He considered the Budini (Greek Βουδίνοι), who are associated with the followers of Buddha, to be Lithuanian ancestors. He found proof of this claim in the language and chose the word “būdas” (character), which evokes aforementioned associations, to express the idea of the work.

Daukantiškas Granausko alsavimas

The article considers the impact of Lithuanian national historiography initiator and literary reformer Simonas Daukantas (1793–1864) on the creative writings of Romualdas Granauskas (1939–2014); it analyzes the short story of the writer with the focus on his Jaučio aukojimas (1975). The analysis of Jaučio aukojimas shows that Granauskas was inspired by the historical works of Daukantas and used the concepts, expressions and motifs from his texts. Inspired by Daukantas, Granauskas used rhythm in a prosaic text.

Prigimtinė teisė ir civilizacinė pažanga: politinės teorijos prielaidos Simono Daukanto istoriografijoje

This article aims to identify and reconstruct a few main elements of political theory upon which the works of Simonas Daukantas, the founding father of the national Lithuanian written history, are based. Daukantas’s major works on Lithuanian history were researched while identifying and closely analyzing the passages where Daukantas specifically speaks about natural law and civilizational progress. Daukantas’s history works were considerably influenced by authors of Neostoic natural law theory, such as Hugo Grotius, Samuel Pufendorf, and Antoine-Yves Goguet. This influence shows in the adopted conceptions of natural needs, natural sociability, and a characterization of the emergence of private property rights in Lithuania with the help of conjectural history methods. Daukantas traces natural law elements in the oldest customs of the people and therefore gives most attention to reconstructing and describing the mores of the ancient Lithuanians. In describing historical evolution, he applied in his works the concepts of bright and dark periods as well as the distinctions of other separate stages of civilizational progress as discussed in Enlightenment historiography and conjectural history in particular.

Citations from Theodor Lepner’s “Prūsų lietuvis” in Simonas Daukantas work “Būdas senovės lietuvių, kalnėnų ir žemaičių”

[full article and abstract in Lithuanian; abstract in English]
 This article analyses the citations from the ethnographic study “Der Preuſche Littauer” (1744; later cited as PL) by the Prussian priest Theodor Lepner which appear in the work of Simonas Daukantas (1793–1864) “BUDĄ Senowęs–Lëtuwiû Kalnienû ir Ƶámajtiû ĩszraszę […] Jokyb’s Łaukys” (later cited as “Būdas”).
 The object of this article is the 31 references to PL in S. Daukantas’s “Būdas”. Looking at the previous scholarly research on “Būdas” and its sources along with the subsequent questions they pose, this article formulates a goal to research the methods with which PL source citations were presented in Būdas. This goal was completed by setting and meeting the following tasks: 1) to determine the importance of PL as a source for S. Daukantas’s research into the history of Lithuanian culture; 2) to exhibit S. Daukantas’s use of citations instead of research into firsthand sources and 3) to discuss the reliability and fidelity with which these citations and references are presented. In order to analyze the text, this article employs the following methods: comparative analysis; textology; intertextuality.
 By examining these citations and references, it was discovered that Daukantas encountered this text indirectly sometime between 1818 and 1825 when he was writing his first history “Darbay senuju Lituwiu yr Zemaycziu” (around 1822–1825). This article determines that Daukantas found these quotations from Lepner’s book in Martin L. Rhesa’s addenddum (“Anmerkungen”) of “Das Jahr in vier Geſängen” (1818). Daukantas used this addenddum to recite Lepner in his second historical work “Istorija Žemaitiška” (1831–1834). Later he found the fragments of Lepner’s “Der Preuſche Littauer” in one of his most important sources – Johannes Voigt’s “Geschichte Preußens” (Bd. 1, 1827). Daukantas had used this book by Voigt to recite an older source several times before. This article demonstrates that Daukantas used Voigt’s book to recite the fragments of Matthäus Prätorius’s (c.1635–c.1704) „Deliciae Prussicae, oder Preussische Schaubühne“ manuscript. It somewhat changes the previous opinion about Daukantas’s comprehensive historiographical knowledge, diminishing his image as a researcher familiar with many of the old or primary sources.
 This article concludes that Daukantas read “Der Preuſche Littauer” around 1836 or 1837 when he was already residing in Saint Petersburg.
 The quotes from “Der Preuſche Littauer” contained in Daukantas’s Būdas are grouped according to the nature of their textual integration. “Būdas” contains 31 quotes and references from “Der Preuſche Littauer”. None of the citations from “Der Preuſche Littauer” that Daukantas had used were distinguished with quotation marks or a different font, and they could only be recognized from their content. Quite often, Daukantas quotes “Der Preuſche Littauer” in several sentences without marking the beginning of the quotation and giving the indication only at the endof the sentence using small letters with brackets, eg.: a), b), c), e), d). Daukantas quite accurately reproduces the text of “Der Preuſche Littauer” and gives the exact reference only 17 times out of31. 8 times his references are incorrect: both in terms of the content and the page numbers. 6 referencescontain accurate content cited from “Der Preuſche Littauer” but give erroneous page and section numbers. Daukantas was the first of 19th century Lithuanian writers who had his unique writing style and historical perspective. This original prism determined the use of indirect citations of “Der Preuſche Littauer”. I determined that because no firsthand Lithuanian historical sources existed Daukantas was forced to use foreign sources such as PL which marginalized Lithuanians as members of an ethnic minority and strange satyre-worthy objects thus requiring for him to engage in historical revisionism by factual reconstruction and reinterpretation from a Lithuanian perspective. He used these secondhand sources to deobjectify Lithuanians and make them into subjects and agents of their own history and destiny by describing their past and character through their eyes. This historical revisionism determined the way Daukantas cited and referenced T. Lepner’s text as a source. Daukantas avoided marking citations in quotation marks since they would then have to be translated as close to the original as possible which would have impeded with his historical vision. To make his narration and perspective congruous with his values and style he edited not only the language of the citations from “Der Preuſche Littauer” but also their content. Most of the information obtained from “Der Preuſche Littauer” was paraphrased, processed, and rewritten in such a way as to incorporate the new text into Daukantas’s own style and ideas. However, it may also be that Daukantas sometimes misquoted the text because he did not understand how the item described in German could look and how he should describe it in Lithuanian. Daukantas often sacrificed the fidelity to the text of “Der Preuſche Littauer” in favour of emotional and expressive speech.
 Translated from the Lithuanian by Ieva Poškutė, BA (Hons) in Film and Literature at University of Warwick.

In Kleio’s and Melpomene’s service: Simonas Daukantas in literary scholarship and poetry

Simonas Daukantas is not only the canonical historian of Lithuania who wrote its first history in the native language but also the subject of a myth that began to be created in the 19th century and continues to our own day. The conditions for this myth to arise are due to Daukantas’s personality, his way of life, his literary intentions, and the nature of his texts. As a historian he does not restrict himself to his scholarly interests but vividly and emotionally expresses his relationship to his nation, reveals the myth of its Genesis, recreates the period of its harmonious existence, and shows the moments of its destruction, thus reiterating the essential mythical models. The mythologization of Daukantas himself was influenced by his varying reception in literary and historical studies, poetical texts, and public discourse. This paper aims to show how the way Daukantas is treated in the scholarly literature is guided not only by scholarly interests but also by the dominant ideologies, and how this is connected to issues of historical self-consciousness and national identity.

The synthesis of traditions of political thought in Simonas Daukantas historiography: republicanism and entrepreneurship

The synthesis of traditions of political thought in Simonas Daukantas historiography: republicanism and entrepreneurship

Fonetinio rašybos principo realizacija S. Daukanto ankstyvojoje leksikografijoje

The data for the article were collected from Žodrodis (1838) by Simonas Daukantas with additional reference to the data of the headlines of Epitome Historiae Sacrae, hand-written dictionaries and the textbooks Prasmą lotinu kalbos (1837) and Abeciela lijtuwiu-kalnienu ir źiamajtiu kalbos (1842) by S. Daukantas. The aim of the paper is to determine the prevailing orthography principle in the early lexicography of S. Daukantas irrespectively of the results of previous studies. In the article it is determined and specified that the greatest part of the orthography in the early lexicography of S. Daukantas is based on the phonetic orthography principle, which is related to the spelling of the root, although there are some instances of such spelling in inflections as well. The phonetic orthography principle is expressed through complex letters with diacritics and reflects various phonetic processes. The complex letters with diacritics were used to separate the Samogitian and Aukstaitian phonetics and also differentiated the quality of the Aukstaitian phonetics. The orthography was also influenced by the inhomogeneous tradition of spelling compound graphemes taken from the texts of Mikalojus Dauksa and writers of Lithuania Minor, as well as developed by S. Daukantas himself. Keywords: compound graphemes, use of graphemes, orthography of S. Daukantas, principles of writing. DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.15823/zz.2017.4

Dar kartą apie lie. <em>auka</em> kilmę

Straipsnyje parodoma, kad aukauti ‘sacrificāreʼ, auka ‘sacrificiumʼ, aukuras kilmė siekia XIX amžių – tai Simono Daukanto perdirbiniai ir naujadarai. Žodžiui aukuoti „sūpuoti, kiloti“ kontekstinę reikšmę „atlikti žydų pakeliamąją auką“ suteikė Bretkūno Biblijos redaktoriai. Siekiama parodyti, kad Daukantas pasinaudojo šia specifine reikšme pavartotu aukuoti ir jo vediniu aukavimas – juos kaip pakaitalus slavizmams apieravoti, apiera jis veikiausiai ėmė iš Milkaus žodyno. Veiksmažodžio bendratį Daukantas nesąmoningai perdirbo, o patį žodį savitai perinterpretavo – aukauti jis įžvelgė kitokią įvardijamo veiksmo motyvaciją – dievų raminimą, maldymą (atnašavimo tikslą, ne būdą). Tą rodo specifinis aukauti junglumas, sutampantis su maldyti, raminti valentingumu, bei kai kurie Daukanto žodžių sugretinimai. Tačiau jau Istorijoje žemaitiškoje, kurioje buvo pirmąkart pavartotas Daukanto perdirbinys aukauti, pasitaikė ir kitoks (toks pat kaip dabartinėje kalboje) šio veiksmažodžio valentingumas – jį sąlygojo sinonimiškų slavizmų apiera, apieravoti poveikis. Straipsnyje aptariama naujadarų auka, aukas ir aukuras daryba.

Editing of Simonas Daukantas: later corrections in “History of the Lithuanian Lowlands” (1828–1834)

Simono Daukanto „Istorijos žemaitiškos“ rankraštis (“Istoryje Ƶemaytyszka” – IƵ, rašytas Rygoje 1828–1834 m., saugomas Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institute, Vilniuje, per 1100 psl. in folio) laikomas švarraščiu, tačiau jame esama Daukanto taisymų. Daukanto autografas buvo nurašytas Juozapo Butavičiaus (Bt) Kretingos vienuolyne prieš 1835 m. gegužės 17 dieną. Daukanto rankraščiuose esantys taisymai skiriami į dvi grupes: ankstesnieji, perkelti ir į Bt, tad Daukanto padaryti prieš rankraščio nurašymą, bei vėlesnieji, daryti po to, kai nurašytas originalas jau buvo grįžęs į Daukanto rankas. Šis straipsnis skirtas vėlesniesiems Daukanto taisymams. Iš modifikuojamų rašybos ypatybių nustatyta, kad vėlesnieji Daukanto „Istorijos žemaitiškos“ rankraščio koregavimai susigrupuoja bent į 4 sluoksnius: 1) galbūt 1842–1845 m. (l. 1v–1v) maždaug „Būdo senovės lietuvių kalnėnų ir žemaičių“ (1845) rašymo metu; 2) galbūt apie 1846 m. (47v, 49r–53v); 3) apie 1850–1854 m. (l. 56v–110v); 4) taip pat apie 1850–1854 m. (l. 155r–519r; bet vėlesnis už 3-iąjį). Pagrindinis pirmojo ir antrojo taisymų sluoksnio tikslas Daukantui buvo pabandyti perdaryti savo ankstesnę IƵ ortografiją, tie bandymai daryti Sankt Peterburgo laikotarpiu. Trečiąjį ir ketvirtąjį sluoksnį Daukantas darė rašydamas „Pasakojimą apie veikalus lietuvių tautos senovėje“ (1850–1854), greičiausia jau sugrįžęs į Lietuvą. Taisymų tikslas čia jau buvo kitas – tikslinti mintį, koreguoti netikslumus ir klaidas.

History of Simonas Daukantas’s manuscript "History of the Lithuanian Lowlands"

Simono Daukanto Istorijos žemaitiškos rankraštis (Istoryje Ƶemaytyszka – IƵ, rašytas Rygoje 1828–1834 m., saugomas Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institute Vilniuje, per 1100 psl. in folio) buvo sukurtas dar prieš atsirandant bendrinei lietuvių kalbai. Nors tada nevienoda ortografija buvo būdinga daugeliui lietuviškų tekstų, vis dėlto Daukanto IƵ ortografijoje variantų gerokai gausiau nei didžiumoje kitų to meto tekstų. Daukantas vartojo septynis pagrindinius digrafus pažymėti savo žemaičių tarmės dvibalsiui [ẹi] (bendrinės kalbos ekvivalentas būtų [ie]): <ei, ęi, ie, iei, iey, ij, yi>. Kai kurių žodžių rašyba gana nuosekli per visą IƵ rankraštį (plg. <ei> žodžiuose deina, Deiwa), bet daugelyje kitų variantiškumas akivaizdus. <yi> žymėjimas suintensyvėjo maždaug rankraščio viduryje (lyipę, szyina), bet vėliau maždaug paskutinį ketvirtį buvo pakeistas <ij> (lijpę, szijnù). Paraleliai su šiais variantais buvo parašomi ir kiti (leipę, szeina). Tame pačiame rankraščio segmente galėjo būti rašomi ir keli paralelūs variantai (plg. żeima, żęima, zyima). Tačiau šaknys su pradine raide <k> buvo žymimos pagal skirtingą nuostatą; antrojoje IƵ pusėje Daukantas stabilizavo jų rašybą <kiey> (kieykweiname, kieyste). Tam tikra prasme Daukantas buvo atviras kultūrinėms įtakoms, nors niekada aklai nesekė kitomis ortografijos sistemomis. Jis vartojo tradicinį digrafą <yi>, kuris buvo populiarus Lietuvoje dar praėjusiame XVIII a., įdiegė inovatyvų digrafą <ij>, taikydamasis prie lenkų rašybos mados – plintančios <j> raidės dvibalsiuose, taip pat susikūrė <ęi>, nes <ę> buvo ėmęs žymėti ne nosinį balsį, o savo tarmės siaurąjį [ẹ] – tokį ženklinimą turbūt pasirinkęs dėl netikslaus Rytų Prūsijos lietuviškų raštų <ę> rašybos interpretavimo. Esama pavyzdžių, kurių variantiškumo negalima paaiškinti jokiais fonetiniais skirtumais, tiktai vienų raidžių grafikos derinimu prie kitų – raidžių harmonija. Pavyzdžiui, antrojoje rankraščio pusėje Daukantas aiškiai derino raides su ilgomis iškeltinėmis ir nuleistinėmis prie ilgųjų digrafų <yi, ij> nuleistinių (lyipas ir Lijpas; pyitus ir pijtine; tyik ir tijk). Paraleliai jis iš dalies vengė šių digrafų <yi, ij> po dviejų ir daugiau priebalsių šaknies pradžios pozicijoje, rinkosi variantus be nuleistinių <ei, ęi> (pagreiiusis, kwęiste, pleina, snęiga). Didžiulė įvairovė gali būti aiškinama įvairių įtakų konkurencija arba sąmoningomis ar nesąmoningomis pastangomis harmonizuoti raidžių formas. Stojęs į ortografijos transformavimo kelią savo senąją rašybą Daukantas apsigriovė, bet dar nesustatė naujos. Pačiam Daukantui įvairuojanti ortografija galėjo visai neatrodyti prastas dalykas. Varijavimo modelių analizė leidžia mėginti sieti konkrečius rankraščio segmentus su Daukanto gyvenimo įvykiais. Pavyzdžiui, labai tikėtina atrodo hipotezė, kad modifikuoti kai kuriuos ortografijos bruožus Daukantą bus įkalbėjęs grafas Jurgis Plateris, apsilankęs Rygoje 1833 m. pirmojoje pusėje, nes paskutiniame rankraščio ketvirtyje esama Daukanto permainų, kurios ryškiai dera su to meto Platerio ortografijos idėjomis.