Shade Structures Research Articles

Sugar beet development under dynamic shade environments in temperate conditions

Abstract In Wallonia (Belgium) almost half of the arable land undergoes a four-year crop rotation. Winter crops often follow spring crops within the rotation scheme. This is a challenging context to implement silvoarable agroforestry (AF) systems, in terms of species choice, plot design, and tree management, since the periods of crop resource capture clearly differ. AF is defined here as the deliberate introduction of trees in the cropped area. Combining spring crops with trees induces an important overlap of the growing period of both plants which has an impact on one of the primary resources for both plants: light. In this study, we monitored an important spring crop for the region, sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.). We quantified the impact of the shade environment on sugar beet morphology, growth dynamic, productivity and quality. We used artificial shade to isolate the impact of shade from other possible interactions in agroforestry systems. The field experiment was conducted over two consecutive years (2015 and 2016) on the experimental farm of Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Belgium. We installed the shade structures so as to reproduce a North-South and East-West tree line orientation. The experiment simulated canopy shade of late-flushing hybrid walnut by overlapping military camouflage netting. In 2015, the North-South orientation induced two distinct shade conditions: periodic shade (PS) and continuous shade (CS). In 2016, the East-West orientation created two periodic shade treatments, one during the morning (PSam) and one in the afternoon (PSpm). In both experimental years, shading was imposed from mid-June until harvest, resulting in 132 days of shade in 2015, and 140 days in 2016 on a growing season of 192 (2015) and 188 (2016) days in total. Sugar beet under shade tended to produce longer petioles. In 2015, at the first sampling date, we observed a higher specific leaf area and single leaf area under the CS and PS treatment, while there were no differences in 2016. All the shade treatments significantly changed the dry matter partitioning between the sugar beets compartments. Under the shade treatments, the quantity of biomass allocated to the leaves was significantly reduced as compared to the proportion of biomass for the petioles. Likewise, quantity of root dry matter formed per gram of shoot dry matter was reduced under shade. Thus, at harvest, all the shade treatments significantly reduced the final root dry matter and sugar yield. Furthermore, sugar beet quality, and more specifically sugar extractability, was affected by shading but to a lesser extent than for the final root dry matter and sugar yield.

English

This article focuses on heat radiation intensity optimization on the surface of a shell metal mould. Such moulds are used in the automotive industry in the artificial leather production (the artificial leather is used, e.g., on car dashboards). The mould is heated by infrared heaters. After the required temperature is attained, the inner mould surface is sprinkled with special PVC powder. The powder melts and after cooling down it forms the artificial leather. A homogeneous temperature field of the mould is a necessary prerequisite for obtaining a uniform colour shade and material structure of the artificial leather. The article includes a description of a mathematical model that allows to calculate the heat radiation intensity on the outer mould surface for each fixed positioning of the infrared heaters. Next, we use this mathematical model to optimize the locations of the heaters to provide approximately the same heat radiation intensity on the whole outer mould surface during the heating process. The heat radiation intensity optimization is a complex task, because the cost function may have many local minima. Therefore, using gradient methods to solve this problem is not suitable. A differential evolution algorithm is applied during the optimization process. Asymptotic convergence of the algorithm is shown. The article contains a practical example including graphical outputs. The calculations were performed by means of Matlab code written by the authors.

Effects of small‐scale, shading‐induced seagrass loss on blue carbon storage: Implications for management of degraded seagrass ecosystems

Abstract Seagrass meadows are important global blue carbon sinks. Despite a 30% loss of seagrasses globally during the last century, there is limited empirical research investigating the effects of disturbance and loss of seagrass on blue carbon stocks. In this study, we hypothesised that seagrass loss would reduce blue carbon stocks. Using shading cloth, we simulated small‐scale die‐offs of two subtropical seagrass species, Halodule wrightii and Thalassia testudinum, in a dynamic northern Gulf of Mexico lagoon. The change in quantity and quality of sediment organic matter (OM) and organic carbon was compared among die‐off, control and bare plots before the die‐off treatment, shortly after the die‐off treatment and 11 months after the die‐off treatment. 210Pb age dating was performed on bare and Thalassia plots at 11 months to evaluate the impact of sediment erosion in the absence of vegetation. The small‐scale die‐off led to a 50%–65% OM loss in the sediment in the top 8 cm of Halodule plots. Thalassia plots lost significant portions of OM (50%) and organic carbon (Corg; 21%–47%) in only the top 1 cm of sediment. The 210Pb profiles indicated Thalassia die‐off reduced the Corg sequestration rate by 10%, in addition to a loss of c. 1 year's worth of Corg stocks (c. 22 g/m2). Furthermore, analyses on OM/Corg quality indicated a loss of labile OM/Corg and enhanced remineralisation by microbes. Synthesis and applications. This study provides empirical evidence that small‐scale shading‐induced seagrass die‐offs can reduce seagrass carbon sequestration capacity and trigger losses of blue carbon stocks. While the losses recorded here are modest, these losses in blue carbon storage capacity are notable due to the proximity of shading structures (e.g. boat docks) to seagrass habitats. Thus, policies to avoid or protect seagrass habitats from common small‐scale, shading disturbances are important for optimising both carbon sequestration capacity and coastline development and management.

Microsite manipulation in lowland oak forest restoration results in indirect effects on acorn predation

Abstract Taking advantage of facilitation mechanisms to counteract harsh environmental conditions may prove to be a successful strategy in the restoration of degraded man-made ecosystems. Seed sowing is often a viable and less expensive technique to restore forest cover in environments subjected to heavy anthropic disturbance. In this context, nurse plants and shield objects can improve microsite conditions, enhancing the emergence and growth of seedlings. However, their presence can also create preferred microhabitats for seed predators, and as a result, may alter their movement decisions and foraging behavior. In this study, we investigated whether nurse shrubs and artificial shade structures, with and without previous soil amelioration, could facilitate acorn emergence. We also tested their effects on the predation of acorns by small mammals, within the framework of a larger project aimed at restoring a Quercus robur L. forest. The research was conducted in a former roadbuilder’s yard located along the Mediterranean Corridor, in Northern Italy. The yard had been in use during the widening of a highway that runs parallel to a stretch of the Corridor. The area was restored in 2014. Mechanical preparation of the soil included two treatments, with and without the addition of compost and zeolitite. Acorns were then sown in plots in different microsites, i.e., (1) close to a shrub (Cytisus scoparius L., Scotch broom), (2) to the north and (3) south of a shield object (a 30 cm × 30 cm wood particle board), and (4) without any protection element (control). We recorded acorn emergence and predation during the first growing season. At the end of the season, overall acorn emergence was observed to be low, and, surprisingly, was higher in the non-amended soil treatment. The amended soil had a higher temperature and a lower water volumetric content in the summer (JJA). No evidence of direct facilitation on emergence by shield objects or Scotch broom was found, but indirect effects were detected. Acorn predation was generally high (67.45%), but was negatively affected by the presence of C. scoparius. The distance of the plot from the rainwater drainage ditch surrounding the study site also influenced winter predation; a larger number of acorns were removed by rodents at longer distances from the drainage ditch. In order to restore degraded sites to lowland oak forests through direct seeding, it is necessary to deal with complex interactions between direct and indirect facilitation mechanisms, competition and predation. Predation was particularly important because of the high predation pressure on acorns.

Going back to the roots: finding a strategy for the management of nesting loggerhead sea turtles in New Caledonia

Incubation temperature plays a vital role in sea turtle life history because it influences embryonic growth, sex determination and hatchling attributes such as body size, residual yolk size, self-righting ability, crawling speed and swimming speed. For these reasons there is concern that predicted increases in air temperature, as a result of global warming, will increase nest temperatures and result in decreased hatching success, decrease or cease male hatchling production, and decreased hatchling quality. In a previous study examining incubation temperature at a loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) rookery located at La Roche Percée, New Caledonia, high nest temperatures and root invasion by beach morning glory (Ipomoea pes-caprae) were found to adversely affect hatching success and locomotor performance. In the current study, we relocated loggerhead turtle nests into shaded hatcheries. Shading nests decreased sand and nest temperatures and was predicted to increase male hatchling production slightly, but nest emergence success was decreased due to invasion of cottonwood (Hibiscus tiliaceus) roots into some nests. Using shaded structures is a viable and affordable management option to counteract the high sand temperatures found on some sea turtle nesting beaches, but these shade structures need to be located some distance from trees and other plants to ensure that root penetration into nests does not adversely affect nest emergence success.

Re-Defining Traditional Bazaar Areas and Shade Structures Via Parametric Design Methods

For the continuation of life, people created various equipment and goods. To create mutual benefits, they’ve exchanged the overpruduced items with different products. This has begun the shopping act. By the increased amount of transactions, a need of defined area for shopping have arisen. For a temporary time, trading areas have been developed at different locations at a certain period. In the course of time, beside trading, these areas served as socio-cultural spaces where the human relations were established. Moreover, demand of being able to immediately access to needed goods have emerged. This situation made having a permanent trading area essential. Therefore, enclosed and permanent trade areas from bazaar, inn, bedesten, arasta to shopping malls have emerged. Next to all these trading areas, traditional bazaar areas keep being established. Nowadays, there is a need of providing some determined comfort conditions to the users for these street alley bazaars. Decreasing the effect of unfavorable weather conditions and providing supportive certain services and units (like WCs, security, cleanliness, etc.) are some of them. As a fundamental solution, without disengaging the user relations with the outside, shade structures are generally provided. Shade structures can support cleaning and similar jobs by gathering and using rainwater besides its purpose of protecting the user from bad weather conditions. Application examples of these systems are gradually increasing. However, it is necessary to develop new approaches, in order to stop these proposed shade structures, become prototypes and to adapt the proposal to its environment and to increase diversity. In this study, a convenient shade structure and its alternatives, which are adapted to environmental conditions, were designed to create a sample model for other bazaar areas. In models, basically, folding design approaches were pursued. For production of these shade structure models, parametric modelling technics (Grasshoppers and Rhinoceros software) were used and different variations of model were generated. Chosen examples of models were evaluated in the aspect of feasibility. A comparison was made between the existing examples and our designed models. Ecological contributions of these models were also taken into consideration and harvestable rainwater amount by this system was calculated. Accordingly, advantages of the system to the bazaar area and to its environment were studied.

Studying third-parties and environments: New Zealand sun-safety research.

Wearable cameras have been used to study health behaviours, but their utility in assessing third-party behaviours and the built environment is uncertain. This paper reports on the feasibility of using wearable cameras for this purpose in a study of sun-protective behaviours and shade availability during school lunch-breaks. The Kids'Cam study provided 168 children (aged 11-13 years), recruited from 16 randomly selected schools in the Wellington region of New Zealand, with wearable cameras. The devices automatically captured images every 7 s from the child's perspective. Images captured during school lunch-breaks by a random sample of 15 children who took part during terms 4 and 1 (October 2014-April 2015) were selected and assessed for usability. The feasibility of studying third-party sun-protective behaviours and school shade availability was assessed for a subset of 320 images. Of the 3492 eligible lunch-break images, 96.4% were useable; the remainders were excluded due to obstruction, blurriness or unsuitable camera position. Overall, 1278 children and 108 shade structures were observed in the sample images. The use of shade, hats, sleeves, collars and sunglasses could be determined for 97.0%, 77.2%, 74.4%, 47.6% and 54.9% of children, respectively. All shade structures could be classified according to type, and canopy composition could be assessed for 95.4% of structures. Wearable cameras are a feasible tool for assessing sun-safety, particularly shade availability, hat wearing and shade use. This methodology could be used to objectively study other third-party health-related behaviours, and other features of the built environment.

How does STICS crop model simulate crop growth and productivity under shade conditions?

Most crop models have been developed with crops growing under full sunlight conditions and they commonly use daily cumulated global radiation as part of the climatic input data. This approach neglects the spatio-temporal dimension of the light reduction experienced by the crop in agroforestry systems. In this study, we evaluate the ability of the crop model STICS to predict winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) growth and yield under three distinct light conditions using field observations from a two year artificial shade experiment. The shade structure induced a continuous shade (CS) treatment characterized by a reduction of the proportion of light during the entire day and a periodic shade (PS) treatment defined by an intermittent shade varying on the plot throughout the day. These two shade conditions were compared to a no shade treatment (NS) receiving 100% of the available light. The model accurately predicted the timing of the grain maturity stage under the PS treatment by reducing the daily global radiation only. A correct prediction of this growth stage in the CS treatment required a decrease of the daily maximum air temperature in addition to the reduction of global radiation. Overall, the model accurately reproduces the total aboveground dry matter dynamics under the CS and NS treatments, but did not simulate the reduction observed under the PS treatment correctly. Three parameters (nbjgrain, cgrain and cgrainvo) involved in the determination of the number of grains have been calibrated with the NS treatment data and were then used to predict the crop behavior under the shaded treatments. Using this adjusted parameter set, the STICS model gave a good prediction of the grain number under all treatments. Nevertheless, the simulation of final grain yield under the shade treatments was not satisfactory yet, presumably due to an overestimation of the reallocation of the biomass between shoots and grains. Improving the prediction of these reallocation processes is challenging and critical to improve the simulation of crop behavior under fluctuating light environments such as encountered in agroforestry systems.

Shading and sediment structure effects on stream metabolism resistance and resilience to infrequent droughts

Perennial, temperate, low-order streams are predicted to become intermittent as a result of irregular droughts caused by global warming and increased water demand. We hypothesize that stream metabolism changes caused by irregular droughts are linked to the shading and bed sediment structure of temperate streams. We set up 16 outdoor experimental streams with low or high shade conditions and streambeds either with alternating sorted patches of gravel and sand or homogeneous gravel-sand mix sediment structures. We assessed community respiration (CR), net ecosystem production (NEP) and periphyton biomass and structure (diatoms, green algae, cyanobacteria) in the course of 6weeks colonization, 6weeks desiccation, and 2.5weeks after rewetting. The heterotroph to autotroph (H:A) and fungi to bacteria (F:B) ratios in the microbial biofilm community were assessed at the end of the colonization and rewetting phases. Streams with different bed sediment structure were functionally similar; their metabolism under desiccation was controlled solely by light availability. During flow recession, all streams showed net heterotrophy. As desiccation progressed, NEP and CR decreased to zero. Desiccation altered the periphyton composition from predominantly diatoms to green algae and cyanobacteria, particularly in streams with low shade and mixed sediments. Rapid post-drought resilience of NEP was accompanied by high cyanobacteria and green algae growth in low shade, but poor total periphyton growth in high shade streams. Variable periphyton recovery was followed by increased H:A in relation to shading, and decreased F:B in relation to sediments structure. These shifts resulted in poor CR recovery compared to the colonization phase, suggesting a link between CR resilience and microbial composition changes. The links between drought effects, post-drought recovery, shading level, and streambed structure reveal the importance of low-order stream management under a changing climate and land use to mitigate the future impact of unpredictable infrequent droughts on stream metabolism in temperate ecosystems.

Sun protection by umbrellas and walls.

Solar protection is an important public health issue because solar UV exposure can cause acute and chronic damage to the skin. Seeking shade is a convenient and commonly practiced sun avoidance measure. Shade works by physically shielding the skin from direct UV rays; however UV rays can also reach the skin from other angles. It is not clear how protective the widely-used shade structures like umbrellas and walls are under actual use conditions. In this study, a sky view model was applied to systematically assess the influence of different factors to umbrellas and walls, including the transmission of the shade materials, the reflectivity of the ground or the wall, diffused UV to total UV irradiance ratios, shade geometry, a person's positions and orientations in the shade. We measured the sunburn protection factor (SPF) with a calibrated UV meter at different positions in the shades of an umbrella at different times of the day and compared the measurement results with the modeling. We found that shade structures like umbrellas and walls are more effective when the ratios of diffused UV to total UV irradiance are smaller (mid-day). The effectiveness increases with more coverage, less surface reflectance, and more centralized positions in the shade. The SPF value for a typical umbrella is probably between 3 and 7 in real-life. The low sun protection level offered by a typical shade highlights the importance of educating the public about how to properly protect the skin from the sun and the importance of applying a combination of sun protection measures during extended sun exposures.

Cell anatomy and leaf δ13C as proxies for shading and canopy structure in a Miocene forest from Ethiopia

Plant fossils are most commonly preserved as isolated organs, making it difficult to determine plant life habit or ecosystem structure from fossils. In particular, paleoecologists have struggled to reconstruct forest canopy structure, a character that fundamentally influences hydrology, nutrient cycling, and plant and animal life. Analyses utilizing cellular morphology and leaf carbon isotope composition have been proposed to reconstruct light regime, itself a proxy for canopy structure, and we apply these proxies to exquisitely preserved leaf fossils from the early Miocene Mush Valley site in central Ethiopia. Epidermal cell wall undulation (undulation index, UI) and carbon isotope values (δ13C) were measured for 21 fossil leaves of a legume morphospecies, “Legume 1”. Five leaves of a second legume morphospecies were also analyzed using the same procedures. Carbon isotope ratios and total organic carbon content were measured for 85 additional fossil leaves belonging to at least nine morphospecies. A large range of both leaf δ13C and UI values were obtained for Legume 1, indicating that different leaves were exposed to different amounts of light, as would be expected in a closed-canopy forest. However, Legume 1 leaf UI values do not correlate with leaf δ13C values, implying that one or both of these variables is driven by factors other than light exposure. Additional modern calibrations are needed to determine the key environmental variables for each measure, as well as the influence of forest openings on preserved signatures.

Comparative Performance of Three Tropical Turfgrasses Digitaria longiflora, Axonopus compressus and St. Augustinegrass under Simulated Shade Conditions

Shade affects turf quality by reducing light for photosynthesis. The shade tolerance of the tropical grasses, Digitaria longiflora and Axonopus compressus were evaluated against Stenotaphrum secundatum (St. Augustinegrass). The grasses were established under shade structures that provide 0%, 50%, 75% or 90% shade level for 30 days. A suite of leaf traits, recorded from similar leaf developmental stage, displayed distinct responses to shade conditions. Leaf length, relative to control, increased in all three species as shade level increased. The mean leaf extension rate was lowest in St. Augustinegrass (80.42%) followed by A. compressus (84.62%) and D. longiflora (90.78%). The higher leaf extension rate in D. longiflora implied its poor shade tolerance. Specific leaf area (SLA) increased in all species with highest mean SLA increase in D. longiflora (348.55 cm2 mg−1) followed by A. compressus (286.88 cm2 mg−1) and St. Augustinegrass (276.28 cm2 mg−1). The highest SLA increase in D. longiflora suggested its lowest performance under shade. The percent green cover, as estimated by digital image analysis, was lowest in D. longiflora (53%) under 90% shade level compared to both species. The relative shade tolerance of the three turfgrasses could be ranked as St. Augustinegrass > A. compressus > D. longiflora.

Experiments with a ‘psychrometric’ roof pond system for passive cooling in hot-arid regions

Roof pond systems for passive cooling of buildings are often limited in their efficiency because of solar heating loads or insufficient ventilation. Here we test the performance of a roof cooling configuration that resembles a naturally-ventilated psychrometer – designed to maintain a temperature close to that of the ambient wet-bulb by employing an elevated shading structure which allows for a free flow of air and maximizes evaporation. Comparing the performance of this ‘psychrometric’ roof pond (PRP) with a control roof under hot-dry conditions, it was found that the internal surface temperature of the PRP was up to 15°C lower and that cooling was equally effective whether the roof pond was fully or partially exposed to the night sky. Throughout the hours of a summer day, air temperature in the cell was maintained within accepted comfort limits while the reference cell was continuously overheated. An analysis of energy fluxes above the roof showed that both the modified radiation balance and the conversion of sensible to latent heat through evaporation were significant contributors to the dramatically reduced heat gain and cooling effectiveness. Due to its low water requirement and simplicity, the tested configuration could have a significant potential for resource-efficient cooling.

EXAMINING THE PREFERENCE FOR SHADE STRUCTURES IN FARMED GREEN SEA TURTLES (CHELONIA MYDAS) AND SHADE'S EFFECT ON GROWTH AND TEMPERATURES.

The Cayman Turtle Farm raises thousands of green sea turtles ( Chelonia mydas ) annually under aquaculture conditions. Historically, the turtles have been raised in tanks without routine access to a shade structure. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of adding a shade structure on curved carapace length (CCL) and weight gain of green sea turtles. In addition, water and cloacal temperatures were compared across treatment groups and shade cover preferences observed. Ninety turtles were split equally into three treatment groups for this 8-wk study. In the first group turtles were kept in tanks in full sun, the second group in half-shaded tanks, and the third group in tanks completely covered with shade cloth. Time-lapse cameras mounted above half-shaded tanks were used to determine turtle shade structure preferences throughout the day. There were no differences in CCL among treatment groups. Significant increases in weights were noted in turtles kept in full sun and half-shaded tanks versus the fully shaded tanks. Significantly higher water and cloacal turtle temperatures were noted in the full-sun tank compared with the half-shaded or completely shaded tanks. A significantly lower number of turtles was observed in the sun in the half-shaded tanks, indicating a possible preference by turtles for a shade structure. Results suggest that providing shade structures for sea turtles results in a significant decrease in both overall water temperature as well as a reduction in maximum high daily temperatures. Results also suggest that turtles exhibit a preference for shade structures when it is provided as an option. From these results, we recommend that a shade structure be provided when housing green sea turtles in outdoor enclosures.

Rationale, design, and baseline data of a cross-national randomized trial on the effect of built shade in public parks for sun protection

Environments can be structured to reduce solar ultraviolet radiation (UV) exposure to prevent skin cancer. A prospective randomized trial is being conducted to test whether introducing shade sails in passive recreation areas (PRAs) in public parks will increase use and decrease UV exposure in the shaded compared to unshaded PRAs. Shade effects will be compared between Melbourne, Australia and Denver, USA. The trial enrolled 145 public parks with PRAs suitable for shade construction and randomized parks to intervention or control in a 1:3 ratio. Use of PRAs and UV levels were recorded at each park by trained observers during 30-minute periods on four weekend days in each of two summers (pretest and posttest). Shade sails were constructed between the summers. Given low numbers of users at pretest, the outcome measure was modified to use of the PRA (use vs. no use) and unit of analysis to the individual observation. Observations (n=580) occurred on average 29days from the summer solstice and 55min from solar noon in warm weather (mean=26.2°C) with some cloud cover but only slight or no wind. Typically, PRAs had benches and picnic tables and were located near playgrounds. PRAs were in use during 13.3% of observations (mean=0.41 users). UV over 30-minutes at the PRA boundary (mean=3.2 standard erythemal dose [SED]) and center (mean=3.3 SED) was high. Shade for skin cancer prevention has been understudied. This study will address this gap by determining whether purpose-built shade structures promote greater use of shaded areas within public parks.

Physiological responses of feedlot heifers provided access to different levels of shade

Heat stress has a significant impact on all livestock and poultry species causing economic losses and animal well-being concerns. Providing shade is one heat-abatement strategy that has been studied for years. Material selected to provide shade for animals greatly influences the overall stress reduction provided by shade. A study was conducted to quantify both the environment and animal response, when cattle had no shade access during summertime exposure or were given access to shade provided by three different materials. A total of 32 Black Angus heifers were assigned to one of the four treatment pens according to weight (eight animals per pen). Each pen was assigned a shade treatment: No Shade, Snow Fence, 60% Aluminet Shade Cloth and 100% Shade Cloth. In the shaded treatment pens, the shade structure covered ~40% of the pen (7.5 m2/animal). Animals were moved to a different treatment every 2 weeks in a 4×4 Latin square design to ensure each treatment was applied to each group of animals. Both environmental parameters and physiological responses were measured during the experiment. Environmental parameters included dry-bulb temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, black globe temperature (BGT), solar radiation (SR) and feedlot surface temperature. Animal response measurements included manual respiration rate (RRm), electronic respiration rate (RRe), vaginal temperature (body temperature (BT)), complete blood count (CBC) and plasma cortisol. The environmental data demonstrated changes proportional to the quality of shade offered. However, the animal responses did not follow this same trend. Some of the data suggest that any amount of shade was beneficial to the animals. However, Snow Fence may not offer adequate protection to reduce BT. For some of the parameters (BT, CBC and cortisol), 60% Aluminet and 100% Shade Cloth offers similar protection. The 60% Aluminet lowered RRe the most during extreme conditions. When considering all parameters, environmental and physiological, 60% Aluminet Shade Cloth offered reductions of BGT, SR, feedlot surface temperature and the best (or equal to the best) overall protection for the animals (RRe, RRm, BT, blood parameters).

Ultraviolet Radiation on an Urban Street with High-Rise Buildings in Asia

Excessive exposure to UVR is known to cause skin cancer, cataracts, and damage to the DNA1,2. In recent years, many skyscrapers have been built in urban areas, and these buildings use energy conscious glasses such as low-e glass and heat reflecting glass to block heat from the outside. Furthermore, unlike common glass, some high-performance glasses reflect not only infrared radiation but also UVR. Therefore, urban streets flanked with office buildings might induce a condition of high UVR exposure. In this paper, the UVR environment of urban streets with office buildings in Tokyo and Singapore was observed. The amount of UVR exposure at a street block was investigated by determining the radiant quantities of the radiation reflected from four directions using UVR and visible radiation sensors. In the results, UVR correlates roughly with sky view factor. However, the coefficient of variation among UV radiation values for the four directions was lower than that for visible radiation because UVR has a high scattering property3 Therefore, it is important to reduce the doses of UVR on urban streets by implementing strategies such as shielding with plant canopies, shade structures attached to building facades, and grass.

Impact of spatio-temporal shade dynamics on wheat growth and yield, perspectives for temperate agroforestry

A stumbling block to the adoption of silvoarable agroforestry systems is the lack of quantitative knowledge on the performance of different crops when competing for resources with trees. In North-Western Europe, light is likely to be the principal limiting resource for understorey crops, and most agronomic studies show a systematic reduction of final yield as shade increases. However the intensity of the crop response depends on both the environmental conditions and the shade characteristics. This study addressed the issue by monitoring winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) growth, productivity and quality under artificial shade provided by military camouflage shade-netting, and using the Hi-sAFe model to relate the artificial shade conditions to those applying in agroforestry systems. The field experiment was carried out over two consecutive years (2013–14 and 2014–15) on the experimental farm of Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Belgium. The shade structures recreated two shade conditions: periodic shade (PS) and continuous shade (CS), with the former using overlapping military camouflage netting to provide discontinuous light through the day, and the latter using conventional shade cloth. The experiment simulated shading from a canopy of late-flushing hybrid walnut leaves above winter wheat. Shading was imposed 16 (2013–14) and 10 (2014–15) days before flowering and retained until harvest. The crop experienced full light conditions until the maximum leaf area index stage (LAImax) had been reached. In both years, LAI followed the same dynamics between the different treatments, but in 2013–2014 an attack of the take-all disease (Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici) reduced yields overall and prevented significant treatment effects. In season 2014–15 the decrease in global radiation reaching the crop during a period of 66 days (CS: – 61% and PS: – 43%) significantly affected final yield (CS: – 45% and PS: – 25%), mainly through a reduction of the average grain weight and the number of grain per m2. Grain protein content increased by up to 45% under the CS treatment in 2015. Nevertheless, at the plot scale, protein yield (t/ha) did not compensate for the final grain yield decrease. The Hi-sAFe model was used to simulate an agroforestry plot with two lines of walnut trees running either north-south or east-west. The levels of artificial shade levels applied in this experiment were compared to those predicted beneath trees growing with similar climatic conditions in Belgium. The levels used in the CS treatment are only likely to occur real agroforestry conditions on 10% of the cropped area until the trees are 30 years old and only with east-west tree row orientation.

SCENIC HUDSON'S LONG DOCK PARK CULTIVATING RESILIENCE: TRANSFORMING A POST-INDUSTRIAL BROWNFIELD INTO A FUNCTIONAL ECOSYSTEM

INTRODUCTION Scenic Hudson's Long Dock Park is a resilient living work of art and a vibrant community asset for the Hudson River Valley. A 23-acre peninsula on the east side of the Hudson at Beacon, New York, the site includes the Peter J. Sharp Park and the Klara Sauer Hudson River Trail. Two decades in the making, beginning in 1997, it took a decade to plan and remediate, and, by its completion in early 2017, it will have taken just as long to build and recover. In 1997, nonprofit Scenic Hudson, the largest environmental and land preservation group focused on the Hudson River Valley, started assembling the different ownership parcels of the Long Dock site. From 1999 to 2003, they engaged the Beacon community through a series of community meetings and workshops to articulate its vision for its waterfront and cleanup of the site began. From 2003 to 2007, the design team developed the architectural and site program for the project, restoration measures, and its physical expression with the client. Working with the City and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC), the project completed the State Environmental Quality Review Act (SEQR) process, filing a Draft Environmental Impact Statement (DEIS) and received approval of the final EIS ensuring that there was significant environmental, social, or economic value. The NYSDEC and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) were also directly involved in oversight of the brownfield remediation and work within the Hudson River and site wetlands. With the SEQR process complete and approval of a mitigation plan from the USACE, the team worked with the City of Beacon to complete the site plan application process for construction. Our mandate was clear from the start—build resilience, but realize it incrementally. The project's first phase, opened in 2009, included additional remediation and removal of contaminated soils, removal of invasive species, stabilization of the south shoreline, a test plot for different materials, a wetland boardwalk and interior pathways, installation of native plantings, and site-specific artwork. By 2014, the landscape's multiple character zones were complete: the established meadow, the connective network of trails and boardwalks, the working site infrastructure of wetlands with swales and seeps, the dynamic intertidal zone, and earthen buttresses. A new pavilion for kayak storage and rentals and an arts and environmental education center in the historic Red Barn were significant additions for the program and community engagement of the park (refer to Figure 1). Over the past summer of 2016, portions of the site originally designed as a LEED platinum eco-hotel and conference center are now being remediated and reconceived as a new civic plaza, amphitheater, overlook west deck, boardwalk at Quiet Harbor, and a shade structure with an area for food trucks. Long Dock Park will continue to adjust and adapt to changing circumstances of ecology, climate change, flooding and sea level rise, and culture. Our original goals of renewing and revealing the historic waterfront, increasing public access to the river, restoring degraded environmental conditions, and demonstrating exemplary, environmentally sensitive development—these are complete. And the park was one of the first pilot projects for the Sustainable-SITES certification program and subsequently received SITES's highest rating of a SITES project at the time. Even as we considered program, spatial organization, and aesthetics, our work also sought to create in Long Dock a functional and sustainable ecosystem. The park's design needed to initiate natural processes for the degraded post-industrial brownfield to function and sustain ecosystem services that had not existed before. The design of healthy soils, the integration of hydrology, and the establishment of native plant communities form the true story of the site's transformation from postindustrial ruin into a significant waterfront park.

Efficiency analysis of PV power plants shaded by MV overhead lines

This paper deals with the occurrence of hot spot phenomena in photovoltaic (PV) systems under partial shading caused by objects on some parts of the modules. An interesting case of diffuse shadows is determined by overhead distribution lines whose path crosses or are in the proximity of the PV power plants. Investigating the impact of these shadows on reducing the power production of PV or on damaging the PV modules as the modules’ temperature is increasing, is of high interest. At the SolarTech laboratory of Politecnico di Milano, the conditions for hot spot phenomena occurrence due to the overhead lines shading the PV cells were reproduced. Two experimental campaigns were carried out to investigate the current–voltage and power–voltage characteristics, and the energy production. In each experimental campaign, the built shading structure was considered fixed and different shading conditions were created based on the natural displacement of the sun. The hot spot phenomena was revealed on a field PV installation in Italy, caused my medium voltage overhead lines shading the PV cells, using infrared imagery.