Separate School Systems Research Articles

We are still separate and definitely unequal: reflections of urban school leaders

In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court’s landmark ruling in Brown v. Board of Education overturned the “separate but equal” principle promulgated in 1896 in Plessy v. Ferguson. Yet, almost 70 years after Brown, schools continue to be segregated, and the structure of the public education system has fostered inequities across the nation. Although there have been legal challenges to the conditions and disparities within schools, many urban districts are still impacted by Plessy-like logic and policies that reflect white supremacy, essentially legitimizing social inequity. Stories of racial segregation, as well as unequal instruction and funding, continue to define many urban school districts. This paper will offer findings from in-depth interviews with urban school leaders. Their perspectives, examined through a critical race theory lens, highlight continued disparities and obstructions in access to literacy, education, and opportunity affecting Black students—demonstrating a separate and unequal public school system in the urban context.

John Clifford, Militant Evangelicals, and the Colonial Model for ‘Secular’ Schools (1870s-1920s)

At the time of the enactment of compulsory primary education, the Baptist minister John Clifford, along with other Evangelical pressure groups, advocated for the enforcement of State-funded secular schooling. They defended a ‘secular’ education, i.e. a curriculum infused with a broad Protestant ethos, which should be bestowed upon all children throughout Britain and its empire. For Clifford and militant Evangelicals, British Dominions offered models of State secular schooling because of the effective separation of State and Church within their realms. This article explores the militant Evangelical views on ‘secular’ education, along with the fights waged against (Roman Catholic) denominational schooling. It explores the arguments that enthusiastic Evangelical imperialists brought forward to defend their vision of the ideal Briton – a Protestant citizen free from clerical influence. It also studies the Roman Catholics’ reactions to Evangelical attacks against their separate school system, and investigates the Manitoba School Issue as a test case confronting two opposing worldviews on education, the State, and the Churches.

Shared education as a contact-based intervention to improve intergroup relations among adolescents in postconflict Northern Ireland.

Past research has shown that intergroup contact can be a promising intervention to improve intergroup relations and that contact-based interventions might be most effective during adolescence. In postconflict Northern Ireland, widespread residential segregation and a largely separate school system limit opportunities for intergroup contact between adolescents from the Catholic and Protestant communities. We evaluated whether a large-scale intervention to facilitate intergroup contact between students attending separate schools (the 'Shared Education' program) improves a range of outcomes relevant for intergroup relations in Northern Ireland. We conducted a 5-wave longitudinal, quasi-experimental study that followed a large sample of school students (N = 5,159, Mage = 12.4, age range: 10-14 years; 2,988 girls, 2,044 boys) from 56 predominantly Catholic or Protestant schools from sixth to tenth grade. We compared the developmental trajectories of students who, in 9th (14-15 years) and 10th (15-16 years) grade, shared some classes with students from the other community, as part of the program, to students who did not. We found that participating in shared classes had a medium-size, positive effect on the amount of intergroup contact students had outside of class, and small, positive effects on students' outgroup attitudes, outgroup trust, and intergroup empathy (but not on their intergroup anxiety, future contact intentions, deprovincialization, or multicultural beliefs). Our findings show that a school-based program of shared education can provide a viable and effective intervention to facilitate intergroup contact, improve intergroup relations, and foster social integration among adolescents at a large scale in a postconflict society. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Educating Palestine: Teaching and Learning History under the Mandate

Educating Palestine: Teaching and Learning History under the Mandate

Songs of subordinate integration: music education and the Palestinian Arab citizens of Israel during the Mapai era

ABSTRACT This article traces the role of music in Arab public schools during Israel’s early decades, as a unique window into the dynamics of inclusion and exclusion that underline the encounter between the state and its Palestinian citizens. We interpret the case of music education in Arab schools through the lenses of a larger historical process of the “subordinate integration” of Palestinians into the Israeli polity. In addition to reviewing the emergence of formal music education for the separate Arab school system, we analyze state-sponsored songbooks produced in the 1960s, discussing editorial motivation and the musical practices reflected and inscribed therein. We then focus on the role of a well-known Independence Day song, exploring both its emergence and early reception, and its persistent function as a lieu de mémoire, representing the larger trauma of forced spectacle of loyalty for an entire generation of Palestinian citizens of Israel schooled during those years.

Women and School Administration

An issue of present personal and political concern in education is the under-representation of women in administrative positions within the public and separate school systems. Two usual explanations for this problem - discrimination against female applicants and failure of women to apply for such positions - are discussed. Particular reference is made to the implications of the "motivation to avoid success" syndrome and possible intervention programmes which might be implemented by school hoards or teachers' associations.

White Bureaucracy, Black Community: The Contest Over Local Control of Education In Antebellum Boston

In 1855 the Commonwealth of Massachusetts became the first American State to officially desegregate its public school system. That development (which the U.S. Supreme Court was to cite as a precedent for its landmark: Brown vs. the Board of Education decision of 1954) was principally brought about by the efforts of black community leaders who, in tandem with leading white abolitionists, had begun to attack the city's separate school establishment in the early 1840's. The desegregation effort which culminated in the abolition of separate schools in the State in 1855 has been examined by a good number of scholars. Surprisingly, the ESTABLISHMENT of the separate school system in the state's capital city has never been told. In the years preceding the outbreak of the American Civil War, Boston's Negro population was the largest of any city in the Bay State. This paper describes how and when the separate schools in the city were organized, and the role of blacks themselves in establishing the system of segregated education in the first instance. The account begins at the turn of the century; by the 1840's, when America was swept by its first great Age of Reform, separatism was infefensible on two grounds, principally: it vitiated the propaganda efforts of those seeking to abolish slavery in America and, two, it gave whites a justification to perpetuate caste. But for a full half century Blacks in Boston were educated separately; these forgotten years are narrated in this article.

Fostering Social Inclusion through Multilingual Habitus in Estonia: A Case Study of the Open School of Kalamaja and the Sakala Private School

After the restoration of independence in 1991, Estonia continued with a parallel school system with separate public schools operating for Russian- and Estonian-speaking children. Seen as a developmental ‘growing pains’ of a transitional state, during the last 27 years the separate school system has contributed to infrastructural difficulties, educational injustice, and societal segregation. This article investigates the role of private schools in addressing this injustice from the analytical angle of new institutionalism, structuration and intergroup contact theories. How do these institutions challenge and aim at changing the state language regime or path dependency in the language of education? Two case studies are presented in this article: The Open School, established in 2017 for children with different home language backgrounds and targeting trilingual competences; The Sakala Private School, established in 2009, offering trilingual education with Russian as a medium of instruction. During this period of nation-state rebuilding and globalization, we investigate whether developing a multilingual habitus is a way to address the issue of social cohesion in the Estonian society in. So far, no other studies of private initiatives in Estonian language acquisition planning have been done.

Stability amid Change: Ontario’s Religious Schools and Canada’s Regime of Secularism

ABSTRACTCanada’s religious landscape has changed a great deal over the last forty years and, in most provinces, educational institutions have changed to accommodate this social shift. The articles reviews the divergent ways in which educational regimes have responded to this change and then turns to an examination of the one province in which little has changed regarding religious schools, Ontario. Ontario’s educational structure, which has continued to publicly support only a secular and Roman Catholic separate school systems in one of the most religiously diverse jurisdictions on the planet, is a surprising example of institutional rigidity in the face of societal change. This article highlights the peculiarity of this outcome, attempts to explain this surprising example of institutional continuity, and considers its implications for Canadian secularism more broadly.

Holy Fathers, Secular Sons: Clergy, Intelligentsia, and the Modern Self in Revolutionary Russia , and: Vysshaia dukhovnaia shkola v Rossii v kontse XIX–nachale XX veka: Istoriia imperatorskikh pravoslavnykh dukhovnykh akademii (review)

Reviewed by: Holy Fathers, Secular Sons: Clergy, Intelligentsia, and the Modern Self in Revolutionary Russia, and: Vysshaia dukhovnaia shkola v Rossii v kontse XIX–nachale XX veka: Istoriia imperatorskikh pravoslavnykh dukhovnykh akademii Heather J. Coleman Laurie Manchester, Holy Fathers, Secular Sons: Clergy, Intelligentsia, and the Modern Self in Revolutionary Russia. xiv + 288 pp., illus., glossary, appendix. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2008. ISBN-13 978-0875803807. $43.00. Vera Aleksandrovna Tarasova, Vysshaia dukhovnaia shkola v Rossii v kontse XIX–nachale XX veka: Istoriia imperatorskikh pravoslavnykh dukhovnykh akademii [Theological Higher Education in Late 19th- and Early 20th-Century Russia: A History of the Imperial Orthodox Theological Academies]. 567 pp., illus., appendices. Moscow: Novyi khronograf, 2005. ISBN 594881016X. Looking back on the meetings of the Religious-Philosophical Society in St. Petersburg in the first years of the 20th century, the poet Zinaida Gippius recalled the extraordinary novelty of this encounter between the secular intelligentsia and the clerical world: "As we got to know the 'new' people better, we went from surprise to surprise," she wrote. "I'm not even talking about internal difference but simply about habits, customs, language itself; everything was different, like a different culture. Neither origin nor direct membership in the clergy—the cloth—played a role here. A person from the church world of the era, be he an official, a professor, a writer, a teacher, or simply a theologian … invariably bore the imprint of that other world, one unlike our ordinary, secular (as the churchmen would say) world."1 Indeed, two generations after the 1860s reforms that granted Russian Orthodox clergymen's children secular legal status and made it easier for them to enter the secular professions, imperial Russia's clerical estate remained remarkably closed and caste-like. Priests still overwhelmingly married clergymen's daughters and sent their children to the separate church-run school system. Transfer between the seminaries and the gymnasia, which educated the sons of Russia's other educated estate, the nobility, remained virtually impossible. This perpetuated the social isolation of the clergy, for it was almost [End Page 181] unheard-of for someone from a nonclerical estate to become a priest. And so, unlike in most of Europe, family ties and shared educational experiences did not bind Russian educated society together; rather, that society was culturally bifurcated, as Gippius discovered. These recent books by Laurie Manchester and Vera Tarasova take us into the culture of the "church world," which was indeed in many ways a separate universe from the rest of educated society, even for its nonordained members. Previous studies of priests and of clerical institutions have, of course, shed light on this "world."2 Manchester and Tarasova expand our picture, however, by moving the focus away from clergymen themselves to their sons, the popovichi. Whether it is Manchester's collective biography of the popovichi or Tarasova's study of the theological academies that were overwhelmingly attended and staffed by priests' sons, both probe the mentalité of that world, exploring what it meant in practice to belong to a caste-like estate and how its members made sense of their estate identity. In the process, they challenge us to think anew about the nature of the Russian intelligentsia, about the broader consequences of the persistence of the estate system and estate mentalities in late imperial Russia, and about the question of the challenges to developing a "middle" class in Russian society and the consequences for Russian civic and political development in the late imperial period.3 Certainly, Manchester and [End Page 182] Tarasova describe the social isolation and cultural particularities of the clerical estate and show how cultural conflict among educated Russians impeded the development of the kinds of links and alliances across social groups that underpin civil society. But both authors also make clear that, despite their outsider status, the popovichi played a crucial role in shaping late imperial—and indeed, early Soviet—educated society. Students of Russian literature and history know well the figure of the revolutionary priest's son, cut loose from the bonds of the clerical estate yet unable to find his place in broader Russian society. In her fascinating study of the popovichi, Manchester explores this topic that...

School Design, Site Selection, and the Political Geography of Race in Postwar Philadelphia

Through a close exploration of site selection and school design, this article seeks to demonstrate the continued significance of school buildings on the landscape of Philadelphia. By assessing the decisions made by school district bureaucrats in the post–World War II era in light of race, the roots of a separate and unequal school system are revealed.

ETHNIC POLITICS AND THE SOVIET LEGACY IN LATVIAN POST-COMMUNIST EDUCATION: THE PLACE OF LANGUAGE

This article concerns Latvian school policy during the 1990s. It is argued that Latvian post-communist school policy bears great similarity with political practice during the time of Soviet rule. The defining feature of present-day Latvian school policy is the privileged status granted the Latvian language and the separation of Latvian children from Russian-speaking children. It is emphasized that the separate school system is a legacy of the Soviet era except that nowadays, official measures favor Latvian rather than Russian-speaking children. Current ethnic politics can thus be seen to exert a strong influence on Latvian society just as it did during the Soviet era and earlier.

Before Brown: The Racial Integration of American Higher Education

Before Brown: The Racial Integration of American Higher Education DAVID W. LEVY I. The landmark case of Brown v. Board ofEducation of Topeka' is known, at least in its general outline and result, to millions ofAmerican citizens. It may, in fact, be the most univer­ sally recognized of all of the decisions ever handed down by the Supreme Court of the United States. No reputable high school or college textbook in American history fails to mention it as one of those monumental determinations of the High Court that changed forever the fabric of American life. And there can be no doubt that the Brown case—followed as it was by spirited debate, invigorated efforts on behalfof integration, and bitter resistance by many whites—fully deserves the notice it has received since 1954. How is it possible, after all, to overestimate the importance of the decision that declared unconstitutional the long-established practice ofracial segregation in elementary and high school pul But while the Brown case resulted in a flood ofcommentary and debate and anger and violence, and while the Brown case has been retold many times and from numerous perspec­ tives by historians, participants, textbook writ­ ers, and others, the prior episode, centering around the legal attack on racial segregation in higher education, has been relatively little stud­ ied. Perhaps because the demolition of segre­ gation in the nation’s colleges and universities education?2 was accepted rather more calmly by the gen­ eral public, it has tended to be given much less attention. But that story too was an important one. It was a dramatic and profoundly signifi­ cant episode in the history of race relations in our country. It too was characterized by enor­ mous courage and heavily freighted with im­ plications and lessons about the complicated connections between law and social change. In the battle to rid American colleges and univer- RACIAL INTEGRATION 299 sities ofthe injustices ofsegregation, moreover, the Supreme Court played a decisive role . . . and one which paved the way for the Justices’ monumental opinion of 1954. II. In the late 1930s, when for practical pur­ poses the effective attack on segregated higher education began in earnest, the availability of post-secondary education for African Ameri­ cans was largely a matter of region. In the North, no state university prohibited the en­ trance of black students. Once they were on campus, however, they were subjected to vari­ ous sorts of discrimination, often connected with the university’s social and extra-curricu­ lar life. Some of that discrimination was for­ mal, but most of it was unwritten, quietly un­ derstood, and traditional. Northern private schools had varying policies, but Gunnar Myrdal, in his classic study of 1944, An American Dilemma, offered this generaliza­ tion: “Private universities in the North restrict Negroes in rough inverse relation to their ex­ cellence: the great universities—Harvard, Chi­ cago, Columbia, and so on, restrict Negroes to no significant extent if at all. . . . Most of the minorprivate universities and colleges prohibit or restrict Negroes. Some of these permit the entrance of a few token Negroes, probably to demonstrate a racial liberalism they do not feel.” Probably there were fewer than a dozen or so African-American faculty members in all northern colleges and universities.3 In the South, of course, things were very different. At the outbreak of World War II, seventeen states and the District of Columbia maintained, by law, separate school systems at all levels. The post-secondary education of African Americans in Southern states was car­ ried out in 117 all-black colleges. Thirty-six of these were public schools; ofthe private ones, only seven were not church-related.4 Atten­ dance in these black Southern colleges had been growing steadily: they had 2,600 students in 1916, 7,600 in 1924, 34,000 in 1938, and 44,000 in the 1945-46 academic year. Although this was an impressive rate of growth, it must be remembered that by 1940, one out ofevery twelve Southern white youths received some college education, while only one out ofa hun­ dred Southern black youths did. Just as impor­ tant, moreover, is that despite theirhealthy rate ofgrowth, and despite the myth that...

Textbook Wars: Governor-General James Francis Smith and the Protestant-Catholic Conflict in Public Education in the Philippines, 1904-1907

American imperialism opened new battlefields for the conflict between Protestants and Catholics over religion in public schools. The nineteenth-century textbook wars followed the flag to the Philippines. American Catholics had fought to protect their children from anti-Catholic school books and Protestant Biblical readings since the beginning of the common school movement. These issues provided much of the rationale behind the 1884 decision to establish a separate Catholic school system. Nevertheless, many Catholic children continued to attend public schools. With the end of the Spanish-American War, Catholic frustration with secular Protestantism took on fresh urgency. Now they feared that Catholic children in the Philippines, and in other new territories, would have their minds and souls contaminated by false interpretations of their church, interpretations that seeped in through American textbooks. The textbook battles that erupted in the Philippines rekindled old animosities and became part of a longer struggle waged by Catholic leadership in the United States to exercise more authority over colonial education. Its repercussions found their way to the White House and Theodore Roosevelt.

The Church in America: From Immigration Through Assimilation to Confusion/Opportunity

ISS Robert B. Wellisch The Church in America: From ImmigrationThrough Assimilation to Confusion/Opportunity Charles R. Morris has given us a readable, interesting, illuminating, and at times infuriating book, but it is difficult to say to what genre his long essay belongs. As Morris himself makes clear in his preface and table of contents, the book is divided into three parts ofroughly equal length: "Rise," a history ofthe Catholic Church in America from the Irish Potato Famine (1 846+) to about the end of the 19th century; "Triumph," a descriptive and anecdotal reminiscence about the American Church from the turn of the century till Vatican II (1962-65); and "Crisis," an analysis of the changes since the Council and the state ofthe Church in the United States today. To a certain extent, Morris' essay is thesis-driven, and in the next five paragraphs I will try to summarize his thesis. According to Morris, the Church in the United States developed the way it did A review-essay of Charles R. Morris, American Catholic, The Saints and Sinners who Built Americas Most Powerful Church. NewYork: Random House (Times Books). 1997. 431 pages + 80 pages of notes and index. $27.50. Logos 1:3 1997 156 Logos because ofthe massive immigration ofIrish Catholics following the potato famine. The post-famine Irish influence on the American Church was greater than that of any other group partly because of four factors : 1)before the 1840s no Catiiolic immigrant group, not even the Irish, was large or strong enough to influence Ae rest ofthe nation, even the Catiiolic part; 2)also before the 1840s the U.S. was a mostly agricultural country, but in the 1 840s enough urban industries were springing up in the Nortiieast for die new Irish immigrants to remain in that part of the country, and mostly in cities; this made their cultural cohesiveness stronger and quickly led to considerable political influence; 3)under die leadership of Cardinal Cullen, the Church in Ireland went dirough a tough shaping-up during die 18SOs and later; Cullen turned Ireland into a priest-factory for die whole anglophone world, and most of these late-nineteenth-century Irish priests were of a certain mold: tough, a bit narrow, but forceful—just what was needed to strengthen die Catholic Church in America and help it to grow; 4)when die Germans, Poles, Italians, and odier European Catiiolic immigrants arrived in tiiis country a little later, they had the disadvantage of a foreign language, they were slower to assimilate to American ways, and diey were never as numerous, nationally speaking, as the Irish. This last point was especially true of the clergy, and most especially of the hierarchy. The Irish-Americans created a massive, fortress-like state-within -a-state in the United States, duplicating the services offered by the United States government with parallel services oftheir own: a separate school system, separate hospitals, various fraternal and professional associations. One accident that may have stabilized this development is that some of the leaders of some of the most important archdioceses enjoyed extraordinarily long reigns, such as The Church in America Archbishop Hughes in NewYork (1839-64), Archbishop Ireland in St. Paul (1884-1918), Cardinal O'Connell in Boston (1907-44) and Cardinal Dougherty in Philadelphia (1918-51). This separate Catholic culture dominated the lives not only of American Catholics of non-Irish background, but also the lives of non-Catholic Americans, especially during the middle decades of the twentieth century, when most of the old-fashioned anti-Irish, anti-Catholic biases were in abeyance and when Catholic culture and the culture of conservative, Cold-War America seemed to coincide as never before. Moreover, ever since World War I, the mainstream Protestants had been in full retreat, and only the Catholics and the fundamentalists were growing, but the fundamentalist growth was mostly in the rural South, whereas the Catholic growth was in the urban Northeast, which continued to dominateAmerican culture. The Catholic censorship (and self-censorship ) ofthe movie industry during the 1940s and '50s is a good example ofthis Catholic-American cultural synthesis. But then, in the 1960s, the synthesis rapidly fell apart. Perhaps it already was a...

Open and Closed Borders: Is the New World Order Creating a System of Global Apartheid?

APARTHEID Ethnic Cleansing some provinces, the formation of separate school systems for Catholics and Protestants, are all examples of the prinaple of separation being used as a device to reduce tension and maintain control. When South Africa introduced its system of African reserves (later called Bantustans or Homelands) it was following a well established precedent in colonial history. The English Pale in France and Ireland, the partition of Ireland and later India (establishing Pakistan and later Bangladesh), and the division of Cyprus, all are examples of REFUGE the political application of the principle.

Culture, curriculum and educational policy in Northern Ireland

Abstract Education in Northern Ireland is undergoing its most extensive reform since the late 1940s. For the first time ever the whole curriculum is being subjected to a degree of prescription by the Department of Education which is affecting all subjects in the most profound ways. A significant focus of interest is the manner in which the curriculum is being planned as a means of promoting a greater knowledge and understanding of Northern Ireland's different cultural traditions than was possible in the past. To this end, the Department of Education is requiring that all subjects of the new Common Curriculum should incorporate elements of a theme entitled ‘cultural heritage’. In effect, this means that all subjects, in so far as it is possible and feasible, will include cultural themes and topics reflecting the different traditions to which the people of Northern Ireland are heirs. The inclusion of cultural heritage marks a break with curriculum practices of the past which had to a considerable extent been influenced in mutually exclusive ways by Northern Ireland's two denominationally separate school systems, one Roman Catholic and generally Irish nationalist in outlook, the second Protestant and generally unionist and British in outlook. This paper discusses the historical background to recent reforms, their nature as far as cultural heritage is concerned and some of the community reactions which they have evoked. Considerable space is devoted to discussing two pioneering projects in the area of cultural studies, both of which paved the way for the general introduction of cultural heritage. Attention is also paid to the manner in which cultural heritage will be considered within particular areas of the curriculum. In this respect the changes affecting the status of the Irish language are highlighted.

How Burned Out are Our Teachers? A Cross-Cultural Study

This cross-cultural study examines the extent to which burnout exists among both Victorian high school teachers and North American teachers in public and separate school systems. The findings reveal that teachers are coping fairly well with job-related demands, and are not experiencing unduly high levels of burnout. However Australian teachers recorded a higher than normal level of burnout as a consequence of lack of job recognition and perceived limited career prospects. The implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed in terms of the Australian government school systems.

Segregation, Tracking, and the Educational Attainment of Minorities: Arabs and Oriental Jews in Israel

In recent cohorts, Arab-Israeli men attend post-secondary schools at higher rates than Oriental Jews. This pattern has emerged despite the socioeconomic disadvantage of Arabs, the small share of resources allocated to Arab education, and government efforts to advance the attainment of Oriental Jews. Two explanations for this pattern are tested and corroborated: First, Arabs benefit from a separate school system, whereas Oriental educational levels are depressed because of competition with more privileged European-origin Jews in an integrated school system. Second, at the secondary level Oriental Jews are tracked disproportionately into vocational tracks which divert them from college education, while in the segregated Arab system secondary education is predominantly college preparatory. The paper concludes by suggesting that tracking, used to separate ethno-cultural groups within a school system and depress their educational attainment, is not "necessary" when the groups are residentially segregated, when more direct means of social exclusion can be employed, and when members of the dominant group are shielded from minority competition in the job market.

Residential segregation: The state and constitutional conflict in American urban areas

In 1896, the US Supreme Court decision Plessey v. Ferguson deemed that the establishment of separate school systems for whites and blacks did not violate the absolute equality of the two races before the law. Thus, the doctrine of separate but equal prevailed in the provision of public elementary, secondary, and tertiary education in southern states until 13 parents brought a class-action suit against the segregated Topeka, Kansas school district. The landmark decision Brown v. Topeka Board of Education (1954) ruled separate but equal unconstitutional in the case of education, outlawing de jure segregation. Yet, it took a number of years and additional court cases to compel districts to integrate schools and actually dismantle the dual system. Recent Supreme Court decisions do raise the possibility of resegregation going forward, as they narrow the circumstances in which race can be considered in enrolment decisions. In combination with the increasing popularity of various forms of school choice, the changing legal environment will likely erode some of the desegregation gains achieved over the past half century.This article attempts to summarize what we know about the impact of Brown on academic and economic outcomes for blacks. The first section briefly describes the legal history that established the environment governing the allocation of students among schools and the main types of plans used to desegregate schools. The next section documents changes over time in school-enrolment patterns, focusing both on the ways in which districts allocate students among schools and the distribution of students among districts. The penultimate section discusses evidence of desegregation-program effects on white enrolment and the final section discusses the evidence of the effects of school desegregation and racial composition on academic and economic outcomes.