Recipient Language Research Articles

Students’ Strategies for Translating Most Frequent English Loanwords in Croatian

English has become the dominant donor language for many languages, including Croatian. Its prestigious status reduces the likelihood of borrowed words to adapt to a recipient language. As a result, some English loanwords occur in an unadapted form. Recent computational linguistic resources have given the necessary corpus-based data on the frequency and use of English loanwords in Croatian. This paper investigates the strategies employed by 116 students of the Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Rijeka when asked to translate 392 most frequent, corpus-derived English loanwords into Croatian. The results were then compared with the available corpus-based data. The results show that single-word Croatian equivalents were preferred over adapted forms of English loanwords and multi-word expressions. When no such equivalent was available, unadapted English forms were used more frequently compared to adapted forms and multi-word expressions. The co-existence of loanwords and their native equivalents is reflected in responses to loanwords that have and those that do not have single-word equivalents. The results highlight the need for creating semantically precise single-word native equivalents, at the same time illustrating the resistance to accept novel native words.

ЧИННИКИ ПРОЦЕСУ АДАПТАЦІЇ ЗАПОЗИЧЕНЬ ДО СИСТЕМИ МОВИ

The article elaborates on ways of English loanwords integration into Ukrainian, with comparison to the situation in German and Serbian. The subject matter of research includes processes of adaptation in phonetics and grammar of the above-mentioned languages. The main intralinguistic factor that influences adaptation process is disparity of phonetic and grammar level configuration of languages in contacts. English has an affluent system of vowels that causes necessity of simplification of a phonetic form of English borrowings in other languages. The major factor of phonetic adaptation is an existing tradition of conveying sounds in loanwords in a certain way. However, nowadays transcription also plays a significant role in phonetic adaptation, i.e. integration of loanwords is based on their pronunciation rather than spelling. Uncertainty of patterns for conveying sounds of foreign languages in loanwords leads to variability of phonetic form of English loanwords at the initial stage of their functioning in the recipient language. Grammar adaptation involves adjusting of loanwords to the recipient language. Its course depends on morphological type of language and affinity. The research has revealed main patterns how English loanwords obtain the category of gender, which is absent in English. These patterns are based on both formal and semantic factors. Moreover, the author considers the ways of pluralia tantum nouns integration into the system of the recipient language. The analysis has shown that there is a typological difference between borrowing process on the one hand in Slavic languages and on the other hand in German, i.e. Slavic languages, unlike German, have obligatory derivational stage for verbs and adjective adaptation, which makes process of borrowing more complicated in Slavic languages.

Polish LGBTQ+-Related Anglicisms in a Language Contact Perspective

Abstract Research on anglicisms in Polish has nearly a century-long tradition, yet it was Jacek Fisiak’s 1960s–1980s studies on English loanwords that initiated continuous academic interest in anglicisms, coinciding with more intensive English-Polish language contact in post-war Poland. While English loans have been well-researched in the last four decades, the ongoing intensity of English lexical influence on Polish, yielding not only new loans but also new loan types, calls for further studies, especially in the area of quickly developing professional jargons and sociolects. The influx of English-sourced lexis is reflected in the diversity of semantic fields, whose number has grown from 18 (identified in Słownik warszawski 1900–1927) to 45 (Mańczak-Wohlfeld 1995). A semantic field that has been underresearched in studies on Polish anglicisms is the LGBTQ+-related lexis, which has drawn from American English gayspeak, shaped by the post-Stonewall gay rights movement initiated in the 1970s. The language data analysed in this study have been collected in a two-stage procedure, which included manual extraction of anglicisms sourced in a diversified corpus of LGBTQ+-related written texts, published in Polish between 2004 and 2020. The second stage involved oral interviews which served a verification function. The aim of this study is to contribute to the lexicographic attempts at researching English-sourced LGBTQ+-related vocabulary in Polish through its identification, excerption, and classification. Assuming an onomasiological approach to borrowing, we arrange LGBTQ+-related anglicisms on a decreasing foreignness scale to identify the borrowing techniques adopted by the recipient language speakers in the loan nativization process. We also address issues related to the identification and semantics of loans, and sketch areas of research on loan pragmatic functions that need further studies.

Adaptation of Anglicisms – complex words in the German and Russian languages (based on publicistic texts)

The goal of this article is to determine similarities and differences in the process of adaptation of Anglicisms in the German and Russian languages. The subject of this research is Anglicisms that are structurally represented by complex words. The topic of adaptation of Anglicisms – complex words – was selected due its poor coverage in the comparative linguistics. The article determines the derivational models of Anglicisms used in the German and Russian publicistic texts. The author traces the similarity in the presence of derivational models of Anglicisms, namely: word from the recipient language word + English word, English word + word of the recipient language, English word + English word, combinations of 3 or more English words. The scientific novelty lies in the fact that this article is first to determine the similarities and differences in adaptation of Anglicisms based on the German and Russian publicistic texts. The conclusion is made that unlike Russian language, German language features a wide variety of compounding models. The German language is characterized by the connecting consonant ‘s’ for linking several word roots; while the Russian language is characterizes by the connecting vowel ‘o’. The author also concludes on the similarities and differences of the compared languages in terms of the tendency of grammatical assimilation of the English borrowings. It is noted that in the Russian language they are often masculine, while in German there are almost as many masculine Anglicisms as neuter, as well as a number of feminine Anglicisms. The acquired results can be applied in reading the lectures on comparative lexicology of the German and Russian languages.

Contact-Induced Complexification in the Gender System of Istro-Romanian

Abstract The paper provides the first description of the borrowing of Croatian collective numerals into Northern Istro-Romanian and explores the consequences of this borrowing for the morphosyntax of the recipient language. It argues that the collective numerals under examination, which are specified as nominative plural feminine in the Slavic model, took on a different structural specification in the Romance replica, in a way that led to a restructuring of the morphosyntactic system, introducing (sub)gender overdifferentiation on just two agreement targets and, thereby, a complexification in this area of grammar. The illustration of this change is placed against the background of the other contact-induced changes that grammatical gender has undergone in Istro-Romanian during the 20th century, which have led to the borrowing of two dedicated forms in distinct inflectional cells and the rise of two separate defective gender values, each the replica of one number value of the Slavic neuter.

Establishing Contact: Slavonic Influence on Romanian Morphology?

Abstract It is not disputed that Slavonic languages have influenced the inflexional morphology of Romanian and its closely related Daco-Romance varieties. For example, Romanian vocatives in -o, Istro-Romanian perfective verb-roots, and probably the Megleno-Romanian first and second person singular endings -um and -iʃ, are all attributable to Slavonic. These cases generally involve loans of ‘morpheme’-like entities, phonological strings associated with a particular grammatical meaning. However, it has recently been suggested (e.g., by Elson, 2017) that certain Romanian paradigmatic patterns of root allomorphy in the verb, notably those involving the effects of palatalization, are influenced by Slavonic models. Some of these patterns appear to be of a qualitatively different kind from run-of-the-mill ‘morphemic’ loans, in that they are autonomously morphological, and cannot be associated within any coherent grammatical meaning. The borrowing of such purely morphological patterns under conditions of language contact has not hitherto been attested in the literature on language contact, and the evidence for such cases in Romanian deserves careful scrutiny. Unfortunately, the arguments provided for these putative borrowings can be shown to be rest on seriously flawed assumptions. Examination of those arguments serves to focus our attention on the kind of criteria that need generally to be met if the effects of language contact in morphology (or any other domain) are to be plausibly demonstrated. In particular, I shall emphasize the need for appeals to language contact carefully to exploit the full range of available comparative evidence, and to establish rigorous criteria to exclude the possibility that apparent contact effects are explicable by factors internal to the history of the recipient language.

Ofrevistasandmagacínes

AbstractThe transfer of words from one language to another is ubiquitous in many of the world’s languages. While loanwords have a rich literature in the fields of historical linguistics, language contact, and sociolinguistics, little work has been done examining how loanwords are processed by bilinguals with knowledge of both the source and recipient languages. The present study uses pupillometry to compare the online processing of established loanwords in Puerto Rican Spanish to native Spanish words by highly proficient Puerto Rican Spanish-English bilinguals. Established loanwords elicited a significantly larger pupillary response than native Spanish words, with the pupillary response modulated by both the frequency of the loanword itself and of the native Spanish counterpart. These findings suggest that established loanwords are processed differently than native Spanish words and compete with their native equivalents, potentially due to both intra- and inter-lingual effects of saliency.

Linguodidactic Aspect of Transverbalization of the Semantics of the Causative Construction have something done

Introduction. The professional translator-like mode of thinking is an integral part of the translation competence of a graduate of the Faculty of Foreign Languages. Equivalent and adequate translation from English into Russian requires a systematic approach to overcoming grammatical difficulties associated, first of all, with the constructions which have no analogues in the recipient language, here belong constructions of causative semantics. The purpose of the article is to develop a prototypical model of the English non-equivalent construction have something done from the standpoint of the cognitive-discursive paradigm in the aspect of its transverbalization and translation linguodidactics. The methodological basis of the study is the use of prototypical modeling, which involves the reconstruction of the primary cognitive-interpretative model of the situation in which it was used, and in which this construction realizes its meaning in the most complete form; this allows us to interpret and adequately translate many cases of its non-prototypical usage. The results of the research. The contexts associated with the description of natural phenomena and natural disasters are the prototypical situations of the have something done construction, therefore, when transverbalizing sentences with this construction, the strategy should be aimed at the obligatory conveyance of the semantics of non-agentness. In conclusion, the developed approach should be employed to improve the skills of critical analysis and reflective activity of students in the process of tranverbalization and the search for a translation correlate (transverb).

The wanderlust of German words and their pragmatic adaptation in English

This article explores pragmatic aspects of lexical borrowing, based on examples of borrowing from German into British English. While borrowing from English is widely studied, the focus on German sheds light on a more unlikely source language. A cross-linguistic, corpus-based comparative analysis focuses on contrasts in the use of post-1900 loans in the German source language and the British English recipient language. Contrasts in the uses of a number of these loans as well as a detailed analysis of the borrowed prefix uber-/über-in English and German show that a recipient language may adopt specific uses that are marginal in the source language and that it can also put the loan to different uses than evident in the source language. Such contrasts are discussed as a result of pragmatic adaptation of the loan into the recipient language. The loan is de-contextualized from its use in the source language and becomes re-contextualised into different uses in the recipient language which reflect the communicative needs and hence the pragmatic interest in the loan from within the recipient language, partly or even entirely irrespective of its uses in the source language.

Functionality of foreign-language inclusions in Russian-language texts (on the material of modern media)

The subject of this research is the approaches towards studying inclusions as a part of foreign-language technical terminology. This article is dedicated to examination of the problem of functionality of foreign language inclusions of English origin at the current stage of development of the Russian language. The texts from scientific and technical journals, automotive and aviation journals, and other periodicals served as the material for this research. The author considers the questions associated with graphical and functional adaptation of foreign-language terminological lexicon. Based on the available in linguistics classifications, the groups of foreign-language technical inclusions are determined according to the graphic arrangement in the texts and degree of assimilation. The acquired results can be used in compiling terminological dictionaries and teaching general linguistics. The novelty of this work consists in systematization, generalization, and analysis of the ways of functionality of technical foreign-language inclusions in modern Russian language and industry periodicals, namely on the example of aviation and automotive terminology. The conclusion is made that foreign-language technical terminology preserves the semantics of foreign-language inclusions in the recipient language, as well as heterogeneity of their arrangement. The increase of foreign-language inclusions in the scientific and technical literature is substantiated by the requirements specified for the terms: linguistic economy, systematicity. The frequency of functionality of foreign-language inclusions in the scientific and technical literature emphasizes the relevance of the selected topic.

Seller and Buyer Integrated Forms of Indonesian and Tetun Language in Pasar Baru Betun, Central Malaka, Malaka Province

The ability of the Tetun community to use two languages ​​or bilingual will give birth to the transfer or transition of languages. In the transition or transfer of language, two very important things will emerge, namely positive and negative transfers. Negative transfers will cause interference and positive transfers will lead to integration. Integration arises from positive transfer because it benefits both languages ​​from the donor language into the recipient language or the absorbing language. The recipient's language is Tetun and the granting language is Indonesian. The purpose of this study is to determine the forms of language integration Indonesian into Tetun in the conversation of traders and buyers in Pasar Baru Betun, Central Malaka Sub-District, Malaka District. The researcher focused on the integration of Indonesian into Tetun. This type of research is qualitative research, the technique used in collecting data is the technique of record, see and interview. The results of this study indicate that the integration of the Indonesian language into Tetun is in the form of basic words, affixation, reduplication, composite and abreviation (shortening of words).

Phonological Effects and Functions of English Loan-words on the Tiv Grammar

There is no human language that is devoid of borrowing loan-words from a parent language to its own (recipient) language. When loan-words are injected into a recipient language, there are certain phonological effects that such words have on the grammar of such a language. This paper critically discusses the phonological implications and functions of English loan-words on Tiv the grammar. The objectives of this paper are to: classify phonological implications of English loan-words on the grammar of Tiv language; discuss the implications of English loan-words on Tiv grammar; explore the phonological functions of English loan-words; and, state reasons that necessitate borrowing of loan-words. The author used primary and secondary sources. The researcher used participant-observer technique as his primary source and documentary sources were used. It has been found out that most English loan-words have no substitutes in Tiv; loan-words have expanded the vocabulary of the Tiv grammar; the original syllabic structure of most loan-words changed from close to open syllables; and epenthetic letters are added to break consonant clusters, for plurality and as a hiatus repairing strategy. It has been recommended that papers should be churned out in the areas of historical, comparative and contact linguistics. Lecturers should give assignments or project topics on phonologically related processes.

Loanwords vs relics

Abstract One of the major issues in historical and contact linguistics is how to distinguish between inherited and acquired vocabulary in a given language: both traditional historical linguistics and modern contact linguistics are in this respect eventually forced to resort to inferences. The aim of this paper is to propose a diagnostic test to aid in the identification of putative substratum relics in the lexicon. The method for this test consists in juxtaposing and comparing word families in the source and recipient language. We use the example of Yiddish-Slavic language contact, in which contact-induced changes are still relatively transparent. We employ wordnets – digital networks of lexical entities connected by lexico-semantic relations – in order to visually “map” lexical and semantic relations of transferred lexemes within the recipient language onto the source language. The method allows us to combine contemporary empirical data with historical analysis.

Cognitive Models of Concepts Transformation in Some German Sports Terms Borrowed from English

The article examines the linguistic aspects of the process of borrowing terms from the English language into the sports sphere of the German language from the perspective of a cognitive approach. It analyses the features of cognitive interaction of the conceptual systems of professional spheres. The paper describes transformation models of cognitive structures into the recipient language in the process of terminological borrowing on the material of sports Anglicisms of the German language. The study shows that loanwords most often convey a conceptual structure in the recipient language, which is generated on the basis of already existing mental structures in the source language. Various cognitive models of the transformation of the “alien” concept are defined: preserving the original structure of the prototype concept; developing new conceptual features in the recipient language; narrowing the conceptual structure of the concept prototype. The research contributes to the problem of the representation of knowledge in a term, the identification of linguistic and cognitive mechanisms of knowledge representation through borrowed linguistic units. The results can be used in the courses on cognitive linguistics, lexicology, in research practice and lexicographical descriptions, as well as in teaching practical language skills in professional sports. Keywords: Borrowing, terms, sports terminology, cognitive terminology, professional knowledge.

ОСНОВНЫЕ СЕМАСИОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКИ АРАБСКИХ И ПЕРСИДСКИХ ЗАИМСТВОВАНИЙ В КАРАЧАЕВО-БАЛКАРСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ

Purpose: lexical and semantic interpretation of Arabic and Persian loanwords in the Karachay-Balkar language. Methods: a descriptive method that allows us to present the basic semasiological characteristics of borrowed arabisms and persiisms in a synchronic aspect. An oppositional analysis that makes it possible to distinguish lexical oppositions of identity, equipolent, privative type, and others focused on the functional features of various words. Contextual analysis that involves clarifying the semantics of certain classes of tokens. Results: based on the analysis of the factual material of the Karachay-Balkar language, arabisms and persiisms were identified, which in the recipient language expand their meanings and become polysemantic. Lexical and lexical-grammatical homonyms that form two -, three -, and four-term models of homonymic series of various partial-part belonging are presented. Absolute and partial, multi-root and single-root synonyms are defined, including the dominant synonymous series. The taxonomy of antonyms with foreign language origin is carried out. Scientific novelty: the article is the first to systematically study the basic semasiological characteristics of Arabic and Persian loanwords in the Karachay-Balkar language using the methods of structural linguistics. Practical significance: the main provisions and conclusions of the article can be used in scientific and pedagogical activities when considering problems related to the identification and linguistic description of arabisms and persiisms that function in the lexical system of the Karachay-Balkar language.

ЭВОЛЮЦИЯ АРАБСКИХ ЗАИМСТВОВАНИЙ В ЯЗЫКАХ ВОСТОЧНОЙ И ЗАПАДНОЙ АФРИКИ

The article deals with the evolution of words borrowed from the Arabic language in two major African languages – Swahili and Hausa, from the mid-20th century to the present day. We used S. Baldi’s dictionary A First Ethnolinguistic Comparison of Arabic Loanwords Common to Hausa and Swahili as a basis for comparative analysis. The analysis allowed us to identify the peculiarities of the functioning of Arabic loanwords in the Swahili and Hausa languages at the contemporary stage of their development. These are code-switching at the phonological level, lexical and semantic variations of linguistic borrowings introduction (semantic broadening or narrowing, acquisition of a new meaning different from the original one), grammar transformation (change of the part of speech, derivational activity). When adapting Arabic loanwords, the Swahili and Hausa languages adhere to certain strategies, which are generally common to both languages. The paper is mainly focused on the study of the lexical and semantic relations between the prototype and the correlative borrowing in the modern Swahili and Hausa languages, the identification of changes in the original semantic structure of a word in the recipient language or its conservation with the motivational feature being preserved. There are distinguished thematic groups of Arabic loanwords, with words related to religion and trade constituting the largest groups in number. Many Arabic loanwords have disappeared from active use in the past 70 years, especially in the Hausa language that has a lesser period of contacts with the Arabic language.

Проблемы русской неофилологии: к истории терминов военной лексики (на примере слова ординарец)

We analyze the semantics, structure and use of French military borrowing batman from the moment of its entry into Russian at the turn of the 17–18th centuries to the present. We give an etymological and historical analysis of the word, we consider the evolution of its semantics in Russian due to the functional diversity of its use in the recipient language. We trace the history of the terminological development of the lexeme and its derivatives in the Russian literary language of the new period, the peculiarities of its functioning as a representative of the military vocabulary in contact with other spheres of the Russian language, while the provision we emphasize for the complete borrowing of a word from the French language into the Russian literary language from its form (phonetics, grammar, features of word usage) and meaning. We indicate and analyze in detail sources of the word study in the synchronous-diachronic aspect, lexicographic, documenta-ry-historical and artistic-text, both on the material of the modern Russian literary language and in the previous periods of its formation, which helps to identify the gradual transformation of its se-mantic structure. We pay particular attention to the disclosure of the voluminous meaning of the word in the text of the novel-epic by L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”, which is a valuable source for studying the lexico-semantic system of the Russian language after Pushkin era. A number of ex-amples of different spheres of the modern usus of the Russian language show a change in the functional-stylistic color of the word and the acquisition of other additional shades by the word. We conclude about the inevitability of fading the activity of its use in modern conditions of conducting military operations, turning it into historicism, which leads to the correlation of its place in the literary Russian language and the transfer to passive vocabulary.

КОМПОЗИЦІЙНА СЕМАНТИКА СКЛАДНИХ ЗАПОЗИЧЕНИХ МОВНИХ ФАКТІВ З АНГЛОМОВНИМ ФОРМАНТОМ -ІНГ (на матеріалі української мови)

The article focuses on the problems of formal and semantically complex English borrowings analyzed through the prism of cognitive linguistics and with applying its methodological set of approaches. The authors aimed at making an attempt of systematizing the compositional semantics of the complex language facts and determining their derivative character. This intention is realized through the task to identify the mechanism of transferring the word-building meanings to the recipient language where they gain their new meaning and motivation. It is a general fact that compositional semantics of the derivative word in the donor language is built on the evident language facts (base + formant), they possess their own peculiarities of formal and semantic complex and their own motivated character. They determined the choice of the research methods such as comparative, structural, descriptive and typological approaches applying in our work. In this study we try to determine the import of every borrowed word component into its resulted integrative meaning. Cognitive linguistics is directly related with the process of language processing inside our mind and describes the mechanism of its reflecting and producing into the human speech. This is the reason to apply its tools and develop them in aspect of compositional semantics especially in terms of word formation that we use for proving the facts of transporting the word-building meaning that is contained in a formal and semantic borrowed word complex. Inside the recipient language such a complex opens its word-building abilities including their categories in system of words. The borrowed formal and semantic word complex has to be considered from the different sides and not only on the lexical and thematic level or morphemic and grammatical level but also on the word-building one. The borrowed words of this type should be analyzed on the derivative level too, because it is a derivative complex accepted as a part of speech and formant -ing on some stages of assimilation are considered as word-building element. According to the results of research we proved that any language fact is activated in a process of realization its communicative task and then it uses its formal, semantic and creative tools for expressing “new meaning”. The authors’ idea is that the meaning of derivative words (including borrowed words) is derived in a motivated way from the meanings of their components as well as their form and their semantics. It is resulted by the number of formal and semantic similar borrowings that belong to one word-building range. It is motivated by their word components. The speaker understands this type of word because of its special meaning and pronunciation and reflects it in one’s subjective creative language world. This approach for analysis of borrowed language facts let us formulate the following conclusion: creative reflection of the formal and semantic complex of the borrowed words presented as a complex, not a simplex in a speaker’s mind. This complex contains a formant with determined word-building meaning, in our work it is the transliterated English borrowing with -ing formant into Ukrainian.

Semantically related borrowings mentor — kouč — tutor in the Czech and Russian languages

The change in the vocabulary of the Russian and Czech languages is largely due to borrowings. Different interpretations of the semantics of words and vague semantics do not affect the popularity of these words among native speakers. The article describes the search for an accurate translation and semantic systematization of the synonymic series mentor (ментор) — kouč (коуч) — tutor (тьютор) in the Czech and Russian languages. The proximity of the meanings of the the quasi-synonyms leads to difficulties in revealing the specifics of each word. Due to the similarity of the organization of the grammatical systems of the Russian and Czech languages and due to the similar process of the globalization in both languages the comparative approach is used. The research was carried out on the material of the search engines Google.ru, Seznam.cz, as well as the Czech database Neomat. In certain contexts these words are interchangeable with units from the recipient language, but in a relationship of complete synonymy, in our opinion, there is only a pair ментор — наставник in Russian language. We also noted the reasons for the active use of such foreign words: firstly, the absence of a functional-semantic equivalent in the receiving languages, and secondly, the assessment of such vocabulary as socially prestigious, fashionable, to which attention is paid.

ACTUAL PROCESSES IN MODERN UKRAINIAN ECONOMIC TERMINOLOGY

The article examines one of the most pressing and complex problems of Ukrainian linguistics of the XXI century – the formation of economic terminology on a national basis. The terminological vocabulary is an indicator of the level of development of scientific language in society and, therefore, of science in general. Terminological vocabulary is the kind of barometer that determines the level of vocational education, as rich and extensive terminology is one of the important indicators of the level of vocational education in the country. Standardization of economic terminology, defining its role in the formation of linguistic and professional competence of specialists in any field of knowledge is the main problem today. The purpose of this article is to try to find out the types of lexical interference, to explore the common features that define the essence of any term; to analyze terms with complete structural coincidence and terms with partial replacement of components, designed by word-forming means of the recipient language; make terms-standards, terms-samples, normalize the terminology; identify linguistic and linguistic reasons for borrowing. The dialectical method is used, empirical, empirical-theoretical and theoretical methods. The article analyzes the history of Ukrainian economic terminology since the times of Kievan Rus, explains general and specific features of terminological nomination of economic concepts, investigates the problem of mastering and transmitting foreign language elements, identifies types of lexical interference, gives common features that define the essence of any terminology units of special, limited functioning; terms with complete structural coincidence and terms with partial replacement of components, designed by word- forming means of the recipient language are analyzed; Linguistic and linguistic reasons for borrowing have been identified. The general and specific features of terminological nomination of economic concepts have been found out, which will facilitate the unification, standardization and codification of this terminology; the problem of assimilation and transfer of foreign language elements is investigated. Conclusion. Standardization of terminological systems at national and international levels is necessary and relevant, since it aims at the choice of the terminological standard and its approval as a mandatory option. It is emphasized that an important aspect of the classification of terminological units of the economic sphere is their word-forming features.