Packet Reception Research Articles

Cross Layer Based Congestion Resistant Routing using Allied ARQ/FEC for Video Transmission for WSN

An analytical model is considered for reducing jamming in video transmission for video traffic related applications. Cross layer based congestion resistant routing using allied ARQ/FEC with LDPC scheme is proposed for reducing the error control in video streaming. Allied ARQ with FEC mechanism is applied during packet reception process. Active pass on nodes are selected for the error free transmission and cross layer mechanism is applied for choosing better routing policy. The received packets are checked for its correctness if it is corrupted then it is verified by using the Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI). Packets that corrupted are encoded and retransmitted by using low density parity check codes for reducing further retransmissions.

Fuzzy Logic Based Multi-criteria Intelligent Forward Routing in VANET

Vehicular ad-hoc network have the capability for enhancing the road safety using intelligent transportation system by communicating with each other (V–V) as well as with road side infrastructure unit (V–I) through driver information system and internet access. It becomes more challenging issue in VANET to provide a reliable multi-hop communication, due to high speed of vehicles movement, limited wireless resources, and the lose characteristic of a wireless channel. To overcome the above problem, this paper presents a fuzzy logic based multi-criteria intelligent forward routing protocol. Which is operable in dynamic network condition and compatible with both communication modes like vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure. To select the greedy next node for data forwarding our proposed protocol calculate node stability cost and positive progress value. Here fuzzy logic based multi-criteria has been used to dynamically evaluate the node stability cost for selecting the next hop forward vehicle or road side units (RSUs), for forwarding the data reliably toward the destination. Three parameters, packet reception probability with changes of intra communication distance, speed difference and link expiration time between relay and neighbor vehicles or RSUs has been used to evaluate the weight of node using fuzzy logic. Also positive progress value has been considered to identify the distance with direction of a node from the destination at a particular time. In framework evaluation, an infrastructure-based fuzzy next hop forwarding mechanism has been presented in urban areas. The simulation results has been shown an improvement of performance of the given solution in comparison with existing protocol performance.

Exploring Multi-Hop LoRa for Green Smart Cities

With the growing popularity of IoT-based smart city applications, various long-range and low-power wireless connectivity solutions are under rigorous research. LoRa is one such solution that works in the sub-GHz unlicensed spectrum and promises to provide long-range communication with minimal energy consumption. However, conventional LoRa networks are single-hop, with the end devices connected to a central gateway through a direct link, which may be subject to large path loss and hence render low connectivity and coverage. This article motivates the use of multi-hop LoRa topologies to enable energy-efficient connectivity in smart city applications. We present a case study that experimentally evaluates and compares single-hop and multi-hop LoRa topologies in terms of range extension and energy efficiency by evaluating packet reception ratio (PRR) for various source to destination distances, spreading factors (SFs), and transmission powers. The results highlight that a multi-hop LoRa network configuration can save significant energy and enhance coverage. For instance, it is shown that to achieve a 90 percent PRR, a two-hop network provides 50 percent energy savings as compared to a single-hop network while increasing 35 percent coverage at a particular SF. In the end, we discuss open challenges in multi-hop LoRa deployment and optimization.

Enhancing Packet Delivery Ratio and a lifetime of Wireless Sensor Networks using Energy-Efficient Unequal Clustering Routing Algorithm

Sensors are regarded as significant components of electronic devices. The sensor nodes deployed with limited resources, such as the power of battery inserted in the sensor nodes. So the lifetime of wireless sensor networks(WSNs) can be increased by using the energy of the sensor nodes in an efficient way. A major part of energy is consumed during the communication of data. Also, the growing demand for usage of wireless sensors applications in different aspects makes the quality-of-service(QoS) to be one of the paramount issues in wireless sensors applications. QoS guarantee in WSNs is difficult and more challenging due to the fact that the sensors have limited resources and the various applications running over these networks have different constraints in their nature and requirements. The packet delivery ratio(PDR) is a major factor of QoS. To achieve high QoS the packet delivery ratio should be maximum. The energy-efficient unequal clustering routing protocol (EEUCR) is evaluated and results show that it enhances the packet delivery ratio(PDR) and a lifetime of WSNs. In this protocol, the area of the network is divided into a number of rings of unequal size and each ring is further divided into a number of clusters. Rings nearer to the base station(BS) have smaller area and area of rings keeps on increasing as the distance from BS increases for balanced energy consumption. The nodes with heterogeneous energy are deployed in the network. Nodes nearer to the base station have higher energy as compared to farther nodes. Static clustering is used but cluster heads(CHs) are not fixed and are elected on the basis of remaining energy. This helps to increase lifetime of EEUCR. PDR of EEUCR is improved because multiple rings help to find better route which further aids to ensure safe reception of packets at the destination. Simulation results are compared with existing protocols and show that this algorithm gives better results.

Analysis of hidden terminal\u2019s effect on the performance of vehicular ad-hoc networks

Vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs) based on the IEEE 802.11p standard are receiving increasing attention for road safety provisioning. Hidden terminals, however, demonstrate a serious challenge in the performance of VANETs. In this paper, we investigate the effect of hidden terminals on the performance of one hop broadcast communication. The paper formulates an analytical model to analyze the effect of hidden terminals on the performance metrics such as packet reception probability (PRP), packet reception delay (PRD), and packet reception interval (PRI) for the 2-dimensional (2-D) VANET. To verify the accuracy of the proposed model, the analytical model-based results are compared with NS3 simulation results using 2-D highway scenarios. We also compare the analytical results with those from real vehicular network implemented using the commercial vehicle-to-everything (V2X) devices. The analytical results show high correlation with the results of both simulation and real network.

Hardware Support to Minimize the End-to-End Delay in Ethernet-Based Ring Networks

Ethernet is a popular networking technology in factory automation and industrial embedded systems, frequently using a ring topology for improved fault-tolerance. As many applications demand ever shorter cycle times and a higher number of nodes, the popular ring endure to remain as a valid topology. In this work, we discuss the factors that determine the ring network delay and show how they affect the network cycle time. Since increasing the link capacity has limited reach, we explore a time-triggered protocol that brings the nodes forwarding delay near to the physical layer delay. Additionally, we propose hardware accelerators based on FPGA technology that minimise the packet reception delay from physical reception to delivery to an application handler, preserving Ethernet layers and being compatible with its standard. This paper explains the accelerators concept and implementation, presents measurements using standard Media Access Control implementations, and shows the solution effectiveness with experimental results. We achieved a delay, from physical reception to the triggering of a user-level handler, of 1.1 µs independent of the packet length.

Turning Sensor Networks into Distributed Antenna Arrays for Improved Communication Performance

We study the potential of using sensor networks as distributed antenna arrays for improved packet reception performance. In many sensor network applications, nodes can be distinguished according to their roles. Backbone (or ground) nodes establish a core network used to deliver data to a (possibly central) sink, whereas mobile nodes transmit sensor readings to this backbone. In the case of errors, the transmitted information is either lost or must be repeated. Considering very energy constrained nodes, such retransmission is often prohibitive. Making use of the spatial distribution of such a ground network means that macrodiversity can be exploited. By combining received signal samples from multiple ground stations, the chance of successful decoding can be substantially improved. Using a specific wildlife monitoring application, we demonstrate the advantages of this concept. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work to make use of a sensor network as a distributed antenna array, which offers many possibilities in upcoming Internet of Things applications.

PPM: Preamble and Postamble-Based Multi-Packet Reception for Green ZigBee Communication

ZigBee, a low-power wireless communication technology, has been used in various applications, such as smart health/home/buildings. The proliferation of ZigBee-based applications (and thus devices), however, makes the concurrent transmissions—i.e., multiple transmitters send packets to the same receiver at the same time—common in practice, leading to inevitable collisions. Either retransmissions caused by collisions or the collision avoidance mechanism, e.g., CSMA/CA, introduces plenty of energy consumption. To facilitate the green and concurrent transmissions of ZigBee, we design pre/post-amble-based multi-packet reception (PPM), a method that recovers the collided ZigBee messages by exploiting their collision-free chips and the overlapped chips in their pre/post-ambles. We elaborately attach short postamble to standard ZigBee packet by manipulating the ZigBee payload, which can be compatible with standard ZigBee and only introduce negligible energy overhead. We further propose two design enhancements, cross-validation and reference chips calibration, to ensure the accuracy of PPM. Such a collision recovery of PPM reduces the retransmissions caused by collisions and eliminates the energy overhead of CSMA/CA simultaneously, facilitating the realization of green ZigBee. We have prototyped and evaluated PPM with USRP, showing PPM recovers the collided messages with bit-error-rates in the order of ${10}^{-6}$ , which is magnitudes lower than state-of-the-art methods. Experimental results show that PPM can achieve packet reception ratio more than 90% and less than 20 retransmissions in a concurrent transmission experiment with 400 packets resulting in negligible packet retransmission cost of energy.

Modeling and measurements for wireless communication networks in underground mine environments

One of the crucial problems being faced by wireless system designers is experimental understandings of the electromagnetic (EM) wave propagation in high stress environments, such as underground mines and tunnels, so that reliable performance can be achieved. This is driven by the fact of limited availability of real-time data of operational underground mines with different measurement considerations. This paper reports extensive experimental studies and proposes a modified multimode based channel model for wireless communication networks in underground mine environments. The experimental campaigns were carried out in an underground coal mine considering significant use cases viz. line of sight (LOS), no line of sight (NLOS), across the curves and bends, in noisy environments, straight tunnels, and near the face (extraction area). We then validated the proposed channel model with the experimental measurements. The validation results showed reliably a good agreement with a model accuracy of 94.60%, 91%, 90.98% for the straight tunnel, along the belt conveyor and near face respectively. The proposed model outperforms the state-of-the-art channel model for mine workings with model accuracy differences of 60.1%, 60.45% and 58.56% for straight tunnel, along the belt conveyor and near face respectively. A model accuracy of 78.31% is achieved across the curvature measurement scenario. Hence, the proposed channel model can be accepted for wireless communication system design and deployment planning in underground mines to provide a reliable two-way wireless communication and coverage. Furthermore, detailed link analysis of wireless sensor networks in mine workings is also discussed considering packet reception rate with respect to distance and received signal strength.

Validation of Wired and Wireless Interconnected Body Sensor Networks.

Current medical facilities usually lead to a very high cost especially for developing countries, rural areas and mass casualty incidents. Therefore, advanced electronic health systems are gaining momentum. In this paper, we first compared our novel off the shelf experimental wired Body Sensor Networks (BSN), that is, Digital First Aid (DigiAID) with the existing commercial product called as Hexoskin. We showed the viability of DigiAID through extensive real measurements during daily activities by both male and females. It was found that the major hurdle was wires to be worn by the subjects. Accordingly, we proposed and characterized the wireless DigiAID platform for wireless BSN (WBSN). Understanding the effect of body movements on wireless data transmission in WBSN is also of major importance. Therefore, this paper comprehensively evaluates and analyzes the impact of body movements, (a) to ensure transmission of data at different radio power levels and (b) its impact on the topology of the WBSN. Based on this we have proposed a dynamic power control algorithm that adapts the transmitting power according to the packet reception in an energy efficient manner. The results show that we have achieved substantial power savings at various nodes attached to the human body.

Optimizing 802.15.4 Outdoor IoT Sensor Networks for Aerial Data Collection

Rural IoT sensor networks, prevalent in environmental monitoring and precision agriculture, commonly operate over some variant of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. Data collection from these networks is often challenging, as they may be deployed in remote regions where existing backhaul infrastructure is expensive or absent. With the commercial and industrial success of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), there is understandable interest in using UASs for delay tolerant data collection from 802.15.4 IoT sensor networks. In this study, we investigate how to optimize 802.15.4 networks for aerial data collection, which, unlike other wireless standards, has not received rigorous evaluation for three-dimensional aerial communication. We analyze experimental measurements from an outdoor aerial testbed, examining how factors, such as antenna orientation, altitude, antenna placement, and obstruction, affect signal strength and packet reception rate. In our analysis, we model and predict the quality of service for aerial data collection, based on these network configuration variables, and contrast that with the Received Signal Strength Indication (RSSI)—a commonly used signal strength metric. We find that network configuration plays a significant role in network quality, which RSSI, a mediator variable, struggles to account for in the presence of high packet loss. We conclude with a discussion of strategies for optimizing sensor network configuration for aerial data collection, in light of our results.

Link quality estimation for arbitrary packet sizes over wireless links using packet reception events

SummaryThe packet error rate of wireless links is known to increase with the length of packets. Yet, packet length is rarely taken into account in protocols and algorithms estimating the packet error rate. Still, it is an important factor that higher layer protocols need to be aware of. In this article, we systematically measure the relationship between packet length and packet error rate over a wide range of wireless links and technologies. On the basis of our measurements, we propose a simple empirical model that can capture this behavior. Using this model, multiple methods are proposed that can estimate the packet error rate for any packet length by sampling the link. We consider methods based on hello packets with controlled packet lengths as well as data packets, where the transmitted packet lengths cannot be controlled. We investigate the accuracy of the different estimation methods in various situations and show how they are able to predict the delivery ratio for different packet sizes.

Comparative Study on Routing Protocol for Ad Hoc Network

Three typical routing protocols, Destination Sequence Distance Vector (DSDV), Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) and Ad-Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV), are analyzed and studied. In addition, three network performance indicators, which are end-to-end average delay (E2EAD), routing overhead (RO) and packet reception rate (PRR), are used to evaluating advantages and weaknesses of these three routing protocols. The simulation results, which are based on the NS2 (Network Simulator Version 2), show that AODV has balanced property in both E2EAD and PRR. However, AODV is inferior to DSDV and DSR in terms of RC. In addition, in view of feature of AODV, a modified AODV (MAODV) routing protocol for the environment of network topology that changes frequently is proposed in this paper. The experimental results show that the MAODV has superior properties in terms of E2EAD and RC.

Uplink Low-Power Scheduling for Delay-Bounded Industrial Wireless Networks Based on Imperfect Power-Domain NOMA

The power-domain non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) supports multiple packet reception, which can be leveraged for delay-bounded applications in industrial wireless networks (IWNs). However, it suffers from high power consumption on transmitters, which poses challenges for battery-powered wireless sensors. Given the delay bound for NOMA-based IWNs, the problem of minimizing aggregate power consumption of transmitters is therefore of great value. In a previous paper, we have addressed the problem under the model of perfect $k$ -successive interference cancellation ( $k$ -SIC). In this paper, we study the same problem, however, under the model of imperfect $k$ -SIC, which is more general in theory and more realistic in practice. For the existence of the optimal solution, we first present an explicit sufficient and necessary condition, which correlates three key parameters of network system together. We also propose a polynomial-time optimal algorithm with complexity $O(n^2)$ . We further consider the same problem with discrete transmit powers, and present an approximation algorithm with complexity $O(n^2)$ . Performance evaluation reveals that the delay bound requirement has tremendous impacts on both the aggregate power consumption and the maximum transmit power. Relative to the perfect SIC, the residual error caused by imperfect SIC results in extra power consumption of transmitters. However, the extra power consumption is gradually diminished with the further relaxation of the delay bound.

Random Pattern Multiplexing for Random Access in IoT-Oriented Satellite Networks

In this paper, random pattern multiplexing (RPM) for random access (RA) is proposed to improve the throughput in Internet of Things-oriented satellite networks. The pattern is defined as the mapping scheme of packet onto a resource block (RB) that consists of multiple resource elements (REs). The patterns are randomly selected by active satellite machine-type-communication terminals (SMTs) from a set of available patterns, and are employed to differentiate signals of different SMTs sharing a RB. Message passing detection algorithm is employed to decode multiple superimposed packets, which enables multiple packet reception capability in the RA scheme. The proposed RPM can be combined with contention resolution diversity slotted ALOHA (CRDSA), which generates RPM–CRDSA protocol. In this protocol, the interference cancellation technique can be carried out across RBs to remove the received signals that are already decoded, which further improves the throughput. The performance of RPM–CRDSA is evaluated via mathematical analysis and computer simulation. The probability of preamble collision and an upper bound of throughput are derived, respectively. Simulation results show that the peak normalized throughput of RPM–CRDSA with $N = 4$ REs can reach 2.03 b/symbol, which largely outperforms traditional protocols.

Robust Optimal Selection of Radio Type and Transmission Power for Internet of Things

Research efforts over the last few decades produced multiple wireless technologies, which are readily available to support communication between devices in various dynamic Internet of Things (IoT) and robotics applications. However, single radio technology can hardly deliver optimal performance across all critical quality of service (QoS) dimensions under the typically varying environmental conditions or under varying distance between communicating nodes. Using a single wireless technology therefore falls short of meeting the demands of varying workloads or changing environmental conditions. Instead of pursuing a one-radio-fits-all approach, we design ARTPoS , an Adaptive Radio and Transmission Power Selection system, which makes available at runtime multiple wireless technologies (e.g., WiFi and ZigBee) and selects the radio(s) and transmission power(s) most suitable for the current conditions and requirements. The principal components of ARTPoS include new empirical models of power consumption and packet reception ratio (the latter can also be refined online) and online optimization schemes. We have implemented our system and evaluate it on the physical testbed consisting of our new embedded platforms with heterogeneous radios. Experimental results show that ARTPoS can significantly reduce the power consumption, while maintaining desired link reliability, compared to standard baselines.

Performance Optimization of the IEEE 802.15.4-Based Link Quality Protocols for WBASNs/IoTs in a Hospital Environment Using Fuzzy Logic

The link quality protocols of the IEEE 802.15.4 show low performance in terms of reliability in a hospital environment. To achieve the optimal performance of these protocols, this paper proposes a fuzzy logic-based solution using a detailed empirical reliability assessment. This paper provides a solution through four steps: 1) identifying the suitable IEEE 802.15.4 protocols and validating their suitability for patient monitoring systems through simulation in Castalia 3.2 with the OMNet++ platform; 2) providing a detailed discussion and analysis regarding link quality mechanisms used; 3) creating a real-time test bed to perform the empirical experiments to find the actual link quality estimation for different hospital environments; and 4) proposing a fuzzy logic system (FLS), which maps the results of empirical experiments with the proposed FLS to obtain the optimal results. For empirical experiments, we divide the communication in the hospital into four environmental scenarios, including inside ward, corridor, ward to corridor, and ward to ward. Both mobile and static scenarios are considered with line of sight and non-line of sight. Different link quality threshold values for link quality indicator (LQI) and received signal strength indicator (RSSI) are found for the variety of hospital scenarios. A strong correlation is noticed between LQI and packet reception rate in most of the scenarios, whereas a weak correlation is found between RSSI and packet reception rate. Finally, the results are mapped to our proposed FLS to obtain the optimal performance.

On the performance of wireless ad hoc networks using bandwidth partitioning

We consider an hoc network where nodes are assumed to be distributed uniformly in space, according to a 2-D Poisson point process (PPP), and packets arrive at each transmitter according to a 1-D temporal PPP. The system bandwidth is divided into multiple subbands, and each transmitter selects one subband to transmit over. The channel access is governed by ALOHA or carrier sensing multiple access (CSMA) MAC protocols, in their various incarnations. The main system objective is correct reception of packets, and thus the analysis is performed in terms of outage probability, which is defined as the probability that the transmission rate required for correct reception of a packet exceeds the channel capacity, and in terms of throughput, that is the amount of information correctly received at the receivers. The performance of these protocols is derived both in the absence and presence of fading, and used to compare the different MAC protocols. The optimal number of subbands maximizing the throughput is obtained analytically for ALOHA and through simulations for CSMA, illustrating how the ’right’ number of subbands can improve the performance, compared to a random number of subbands. Furthermore, in the case of CSMA, sensing across all subbands is introduced and shown to provide additional performance gain.

Comparison of OFDM and OOK modulations for vehicle-to-vehicle visible light communication in real-world driving scenarios

Visible light communication (VLC) is seen as an interesting technology to complement the IEEE 802.11p-based systems commonly used for vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication. However, the reliability of such a V2V-VLC link in real-world driving scenario had not been demonstrated up to very recently. The results obtained, at that time with orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) at 2 kbps, are complemented in this paper with additional results using on-off keying (OOK) at 100 kbps. The overall performances of this second modulation are rather close to those of OFDM. The packet reception rate (PRR) remains more than 90% over a service area of 30 m length-wise and the link is not affected by multipath propagation. Error-free transmission is even demonstrated over 60 m using repetition coding, at the cost of a reduced data rate of 10 kbps. However, it is shown that OFDM is able to cope with the narrow-band interferences generated by outdoor lighting such as LED signs whereas the OOK link is completely jammed. Despite its simplicity and good overall performances, OOK is thus not as robust as OFDM to the variety of situations experienced in real-world driving scenario.

Characterizing Urban Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communications for Reliable Safety Applications

The IEEE 802.11p-based dedicated short range communication (DSRC) is essential to enhance driving safety and improve road efficiency by enabling rapid cooperative message exchanging. However, there is a lack of good understanding on the DSRC performance in urban environments for vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communications, which impedes its reliable and efficient application. In this paper, we first conduct intensive data analytics on V2V performance, based on a large amount of real-world DSRC communications trace collected in Shanghai city, and obtain several key insights as follows. First, among many context factors, the non-line-of-sight (NLoS) link condition is the major factor degrading V2V performance. Second, the durations of line-of-sight (LoS) and NLoS transmission conditions follow power law distributions, which indicate that the probability of experiencing long LoS/NLoS conditions both could be high. Third, the packet inter-reception (PIR) time distribution follows an exponential distribution in the LoS conditions but a power law in the NLoS conditions, which means that the consecutive packet reception failures rarely appear in the LoS conditions but can constantly appear in the NLoS conditions. Based on these findings, we propose a context-aware reliable beaconing scheme, called CoBe , to enhance the broadcast reliability for safety applications. The CoBe is a fully distributed scheme, in which a vehicle first detects the link condition with each of its neighbors by machine learning algorithms, then exchanges such link condition information with its neighbors, and finally selects the minimal number of helper vehicles to rebroadcast its beacons to those neighbors in bad link condition. To analyze and evaluate the CoBe performance, a two-state Markov chain is devised to model beaconing behaviors. The extensive trace-driven simulations are conducted to demonstrate the efficacy of CoBe .