Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields Exposure Research Articles

Cell Biological Effects of Long-term Exposure to Electromagnetic Field of Simulated Mobile Phones

Living in today’s world requires extensive communication with the world around us, which the mobile phone is one of this equipment along with other devices such as computers, radios, telephone towers, and power lines. It is supposed that prolonged exposure to radiation may cause biological damage to living organisms. However, the results from different laboratory studies are contradictory and there is still insufficient information about the biological risks to human health. In this article, we reviewed some of the potential biological effects of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Field (RF-EMF) exposure.

A Monte Carlo Analysis of Actual Maximum Exposure From a 5G Millimeter-Wave Base Station Antenna for EMF Compliance Assessments.

International radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure assessment standards and regulatory bodies have developed methods and specified requirements to assess the actual maximum RF EMF exposure from radio base stations enabling massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) and beamforming. Such techniques are based on the applications of power reduction factors (PRFs), which lead to more realistic, albeit conservative, exposure assessments. In this study, the actual maximum EMF exposure and the corresponding PRFs are computed for a millimeter-wave radio base station array antenna. The computed incident power densities based on near-field and far-field approaches are derived using a Monte Carlo analysis. The results show that the actual maximum exposure is well below the theoretical maximum, and the PRFs similar to those applicable for massive MIMO radio base stations operating below 6 GHz are also applicable for millimeter-wave frequencies. Despite the very low power levels that currently characterize millimeter-wave radio base stations, using the far-field approach can also guarantee the conservativeness of the PRFs used to assess the actual maximum exposure close to the antenna.

Methodology for Electromagnetic Field Exposure Assessment of 5G Massive MIMO Antennas Accounting for Spatial Variability of Radiated Power

The technology of massive Multiple Input Multiple Output (maMIMO) antennas introduces new challenges in the Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF EMF) exposure assessment of 5G base stations due to the aleatory changes of the radiation direction. The beamforming capabilities of the antenna modify the radiation pattern both in space and in time domain in order to adapt the electromagnetic footprint to the changes of user positions, mobility, and service requests. Recently, Base Station (BS) power monitoring counters per Angular Regions (AR) were introduced in maMIMO antenna technology for monitoring the power associated to specific angular directions. By analyzing the time averaged power reported by ARs power monitoring counters the paper proposes, making use of simulations, a methodology to quantify a statistical spatial power reduction factor (0.05 to 0.5, on the base of the assumptions adopted in this paper) to be applied in the RF EMF exposure assessment process accounting for the variability of the maMIMO antenna radiation pattern. The proposed approach enhances and completes the methodology already described in normative documents for characterizing time variations of the total radiated power. The paper is completed with a sensitivity analysis for the size of each AR with respect to the antenna beam size; the analysis shows that a good spatial resolution is achieved when the AR Region has almost the same size as the beam’s half power beam width.

Analysis of 5G Base Station RF EMF Exposure Evaluation Methods in Scattering Environments

The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) develops and validates methods for assessing radio frequency electromagnetic field (RF EMF) exposure due to base stations (BS). When the assessment is performed in- situ, it is recommended to extrapolate the maximum level of exposure from measurement of stable signals, such as broadcast signal with BS of the 5^th generation (5G) of mobile communication systems (gNodeB). A comparative statistical analysis of extrapolation methods based on nominal antenna pattern (as measured in an anechoic chamber) and effective antenna pattern (as measured in scattering environment) of gNodeB is presented in this paper. This theoretical analysis shows that extrapolation with nominal antenna pattern may lead to significant overestimation of the maximum RF EMF exposure (up to 5.4 dB) in case of scattering environment or non-line-of-sight (NLOS) conditions. This overestimation is expected to be reduced by using effective antenna pattern in order to better represent the actual propagation conditions, such as those found in urban or dense urban areas. Therefore, it is recommended to perform extrapolation of the maximum exposure based on joint modeling of antenna beam pattern and representative value of the angular spread (AS) for the targeted deployment conditions. This conclusion was obtained from the observed consistence between two different approaches for determination of effective antenna gain. The first approach assumes statistical simulations with full three-dimensional (3D) channel model, especially distribution function of AS. The second approach enables simpler calculation of the effective antenna gain in scattering environment or NLOS conditions by considering only representative values from the full range of AS distribution function. The proposed simple method, if used with representative realistic values of AS, could reduce overestimation of RF EMF exposure resulting from an extrapolation factor based on nominal antenna gains of broadcast and traffic beams.

5G Spatial Modeling of Personal RF-EMF Assessment Within Aircrafts Cabin Environments

Recently, new wireless communication systems within aircrafts cabins have drawn higher attention due to the growing demand of passenger services and applications and their corresponding requirements and constraints. In this regard, the fifth generation (5G) of wireless communication becomes an attractive and promising alternative to enable aircraft passengers’ comfort and entertainment along the flight, considering its potential benefits in term of high data transfers and low latencies. Nevertheless, general population concern about radio frequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) safety in general and, in particular to the environmental exposure at which we are all exposed in these flights, increases at the same time. Thus, in this work, we present an experimental campaign of measurements for current passengers’ environmental exposure assessment, performed in different real generalizable type of flights and aircrafts’ cabins, in order to provide current RF-EMF exposure insight within these complex heterogeneous environments. In addition, worst-case uplink 5G scenarios, where all 5G cellular handsets of the passengers operate at the same time, have been simulated by means of an in-house developed 3D Ray Launching (3D-RL) deterministic technique. Before takeoff and after landing, critical scenarios with the aircrafts’ doors closed have been selected and assessed considering different types of modeled aircrafts full of passengers, considering 5G frequency range 2 (5G-FR2) operating links. The obtained results show that the operation frequency and the morphology and topology of the aircraft cabin have a great influence in the environmental RF-EMF passengers’ spatial distribution and overall exposure, but not exceeding, even in worst case conditions, the international established regulatory limits.

RF-EMF Exposure Measurement for 5G Over Mm-Wave Base Station With MIMO Antenna

The fifth-generation (5G) technology offers more capacity and data rates than the previous generations. It provides ultra-low latency and ultra-high dependability, allowing for efficient services in many industries. Using radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) above 6 GHz in 5G millimeter Wave(mm-Wave) base stations has concerned many people due to the potential health risks caused by EMF exposure. This study aims to measure the maximum exposure emitted by a 5G mm-Wave base station by utilizing international standards in both its assessment methodology and exposure limits. In this study, the R&S Ⓡ TSMA6 scanner, R&S Ⓡ ROMES4 software, and R&S Ⓡ TSME30DC down converter have been used for the measurement campaign; in addition to the user equipment device (UE), GPS, and an omnidirectional antenna. The investigation is based on a code selective method due to the radiated power fluctuations over time with data traffic. To conduct the measurement, six tests are taken based on three different time frames, antenna directions, and user equipment device (UE) to investigate the RF-EMF exposure. The maximum and average exposure from the 5G mm-Wave base station are calculated and compared with the ICNIRP standard. The maximum exposure from the 29.5 GHz base station is found to be 5.71 V/m, and the highest amount of average exposure is 2.02V/m. In this study, it was found that the maximum and average exposure (RF-EMF) produced from a single 5G mm-Wave base station are well within the allowed RF-EMF standard limit.

The effect of long-term radiofrequency exposure on cognition in human observational studies: A protocol for a systematic review.

The long term effects of exposure to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMF) for frequencies from 100 kHz to 300 GHz on cognitive performance are best assessed using observational studies. In recent years, the use of mobile (cell) phones has been the main source of RF EMF exposure to the brain, although other sources of exposure may be significant. Cognitive function includes various mental and psychological abilities, which can be measured in a range of domains, such as learning, memory, reasoning, problem solving, decision making and attention. Although effects on cognitive function may be most evident later in life, in the experimental setting acute and immediate effects can only be studied. Observational studies are needed when effects are observed after months or years following short or long-term exposure. The importance of the effects of exposure on children has also been recently identified. To assess the long-term effects of RF EMF local and whole-body exposure compared to no or a lower level of exposure on indicators of cognition, including complex attention, executive function, learning and memory, perceptual motor ability and social cognition, but excluding cognitive effects caused by neurodegenerative diseases or neurodevelopmental disorders, and to assess if there is evidence of a dose response relationship. We will include observational studies that have evaluated cognitive effects of RF energy including a comparator group with a different level of exposure. Studies must report at least one validated measure of cognitive function, including global or domain specific measures, or cognitive impairment, with a minimum follow-up of 6 months. Cohort or case-control studies published in the peer review literature in any language are eligible. We will exclude cross-sectional studies and any that only report brain structure or biomarkers. We will conduct searches of PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO and the EMF-Portal. At least two authors will independently screen the titles/abstracts of all records, with any conflicts resolved by a third reviewer. Full-text screening will also be conducted independently by two authors with conflicts resolved by consensus. Data will be extracted from the studies included, such as identifiers and characteristics of the study design, exposure and comparator groups, participants, outcomes assessed and results. Risk of bias will be assessed with the Office of Health Assessment and Translation (OHAT) tool. We will conduct a meta-analysis of similar studies with a random effects model in STATA or similar software, if two or more studies are available for a given exposure-outcome combination. Confidence in the body evidence will be judged using GRADE methods as adapted by OHAT for reviews of environmental exposures.

Towards Environmental RF-EMF Assessment of mmWave High-Node Density Complex Heterogeneous Environments.

The densification of multiple wireless communication systems that coexist nowadays, as well as the 5G new generation cellular systems advent towards the millimeter wave (mmWave) frequency range, give rise to complex context-aware scenarios with high-node density heterogeneous networks. In this work, a radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure assessment from an empirical and modeling approach for a large, complex indoor setting with high node density and traffic is presented. For that purpose, an intensive and comprehensive in-depth RF-EMF E-field characterization study is provided in a public library study case, considering dense personal mobile communications (5G FR2 @28 GHz) and wireless 802.11ay (@60 GHz) data access services on the mmWave frequency range. By means of an enhanced in-house deterministic 3D ray launching (3D-RL) simulation tool for RF-EMF exposure assessment, different complex heterogenous scenarios of high complexity are assessed in realistic operation conditions, considering different user distributions and densities. The use of directive antennas and MIMO beamforming techniques, as well as all the corresponding features in terms of radio wave propagation, such as the body shielding effect, dispersive material properties of obstacles, the impact of the distribution of scatterers and the associated electromagnetic propagation phenomena, are considered for simulation. Discussion regarding the contribution and impact of the coexistence of multiple heterogeneous networks and services is presented, verifying compliance with the current established international regulation limits with exposure levels far below the aforementioned limits. Finally, the proposed simulation technique is validated with a complete empirical campaign of measurements, showing good agreement. In consequence, the obtained datasets and simulation estimations, along with the proposed RF-EMF simulation tool, could be a reference approach for the design, deployment and exposure assessment of the current and future wireless communication technologies on the mmWave spectrum, where massive high-node density heterogeneous networks are expected.

Human resting-state EEG and radiofrequency GSM mobile phone exposure: the impact of the individual alpha frequency

Purpose With the extensive use of mobile phone (MP), several studies have been realized to investigate the effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) exposure on brain activity at rest via electroencephalography (EEG), and the most consistent effect has been seen on the alpha band power spectral density (PSD). However, some studies reported an increase or a decrease of the PSD, while others showed no effect. It has been suggested that these differences might partly be due to a variability of the physiological state of the brain between subjects. So, the aim of this study was to investigate the alpha band modulation, exploring the impact of the alpha band frequency ranges applied in the PSD analysis. Materials and Methods Twenty-one healthy volunteers took part to the study with a double-blind, randomized and counterbalanced crossover design, during which eyes-open (EO) and eyes-closed (EC) resting-state EEG was recorded. The exposure system was a sham or a real GSM (global system for mobile) 900 MHz MP (pulse modulated at 217 Hz, mean power of 250 mW and 2 W peak, with a maximum specific absorption rate of 0.70 W/kg on 1 g tissue). The experimental protocol presented a baseline recording phase without MP exposure, an exposure phase during which the exposure system was placed against the left ear, and the post-exposure phase without MP. EEG data from baseline and exposure phases were analyzed and PSD was computed for the alpha band in the fixed range of 8–12 Hz and for the individual alpha band frequency range (IAF). Results Results showed a trend in decrease or increase of EEG power of both alpha oscillations during exposure in relation to EC and EO recording conditions, respectively, but not reaching statistical significance. Findings did not provide evidence for a different sensitivity to RF-EMF MP related to individual variability in the frequency of the alpha band. Conclusion In conclusion, these results did not show alpha band activity modulation during resting-state under RF-EMF. It might be argued the need of a delay after the exposure in order to appreciate an EEG spectral power modulation related to RF-EMF exposure.

Effects of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Field (RF-EMF) exposure on male fertility and pregnancy and birth outcomes: Protocols for a systematic review of experimental studies in non-human mammals and in human sperm exposed in vitro

Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF) at environmental level have been reported to induce adverse effects on the male reproductive system and developing embryos. However, despite the number of experiments conducted since the 1970s, the diversity of testing approaches and exposure conditions, inconsistencies among results, and dosimetric flaws have not yet permitted a solid assessment of the relationship between RF-EMF exposure and such effects, warranting a more systematic and methodologically rigorous approach to the evaluation of available data. This study aims at evaluating the effects of RF-EMF exposure on male fertility and pregnancy outcomes by a systematic review (SR) of experimental studies, conducted in compliance with international guidelines. The evidence will be organized into three streams: 1) Studies evaluating the impact of RF-EMF on the male reproductive system of experimental mammals; 2) studies evaluating the impact of RF-EMF on human sperm exposed in vitro; 3) studies evaluating the impact of RF-EMF on adverse pregnancy, birth outcomes and delayed effects in experimental mammals exposed in utero. Eligible studies will include peer-reviewed articles reporting of original results about effects of controlled exposures to RF-EMF in the frequency range 100 kHz-300 GHz on the selected outcomes without any language or year-of-publication restrictions. Eligible studies will be retrieved by calibrated search strings applied to three electronic databases, PubMed, Scopus and EMF Portal and by manual search of the list of references of included papers and published reviews. The internal validity of the studies will be evaluated using the Risk of Bias (RoB) Rating Tool developed by National Toxicology Program/Office of Health Assessment and Translation (NTP/OHAT) integrated with input from the SYRCLE RoB tool. Given sufficient commensurate data, meta-analyses will be performed, otherwise narrative syntheses will be produced. Finally, the certainty of the effects of RF-EMF exposure on male fertility and pregnancy and birth outcomes will be established following GRADE. The study is financially supported by the World Health Organization. OSF Registration DOI https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/7MUS3; PROSPERO CRD42021227729, CRD42021227746.

What evidence exists on the impact of anthropogenic radiofrequency electromagnetic fields on animals and plants in the environment? A systematic map protocol

BackgroundExposure to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMF), particularly from telecommunications sources, is one of the most common and fastest growing anthropogenic factors on the environment. In many countries, humans are protected from excessive RF EMF exposure by safety standards that are based on guidelines by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). The ICNIRP guidelines are based on knowledge of how RF EMF affects the human body, however, there are currently no recognised international guidelines to specifically protect animals and plants. Whether the ICNIRP guidelines for humans is adequate to provide protection to the environment is a subject of active debate. This systematic map will collate all the available evidence on whether anthropogenic RF EMF has a negative effect on plants and animals in the environment. The map will also identify gaps in knowledge, recommend future research and inform environmental and radiation protection authorities.MethodsThe proposed systematic map will include peer-reviewed and grey literature published in English. The EMF—Portal, PubMed and Web of Science databases will be searched using a search string prepared by the review team and tested for comprehensiveness against a list of known relevant reviews. Once duplicates are removed, retrieved articles will be screened in three stages: title, abstract, and full text. Studies will be selected with a subject population of all plants and animals, with exposures to anthropogenic RF EMF (frequency range 100 kHz–300 GHz) compared to no or lower-level exposure, and for all outcomes related to the studied populations. Kappa statistic tests will be conducted at each stage to ensure consistency of decision-making regarding the predefined inclusion/exclusion criteria. Eligible studies will then proceed to the data extraction phase, which will extract meta-data such as bibliographic information, taxonomic information, RF EMF exposure data, outcome(s), sample size, etc. The extracted data will then be organised into a systematic map and the findings summarised by cross-tabulating key meta-data variables in heat maps, charts or other data visualization methods. The systematic map will identify gaps in knowledge, priorities for future research and potential subtopics for further analysis and/or systematic review.

The effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields exposure on tinnitus, migraine and non-specific symptoms in the general and working population: A protocol for a systematic review on human observational studies.

Applications emitting radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF; 100kHz to 300GHz) are widely used for communication (e.g. mobile phones), in medicine (diathermy) and in industry (RF heaters). Concern has been raised that RF-EMF exposure affects health related quality of life, because a part of the population reports to experience a variety of symptoms related to low exposure levels below regulatory limits. To systematically review the effects of longer-term or repeated local and whole human body RF-EMF exposure on the occurrence of symptoms evaluating migraine, tinnitus, headaches, sleep disturbances and composite symptom scores as primary outcomes. We will follow the WHO handbook for guideline development. For the development of the systematic review protocol we considered handbook for conducting systematic reviews for health effects evaluations from the National Toxicology Program-Office of Health Assessment and Translation (NTP-OHAT) and COSTER (Recommendations for the conduct of systematic reviews in toxicology and environmental health research). Peer-reviewed epidemiological studies in the general population or workers aiming to investigate the association between local or whole-body RF-EMF exposure for at least one week and symptoms are eligible for inclusion. Only cohort, case-control and panel studies will be included. We will search the scientific literature databases Medline, Web of Science, PsycInfo, Cochrane Library, Epistemonikos and Embase, using a predefined search strategy. This search will be supplemented by a search in the EMF-Portal and checks of reference lists of relevant papers and reviews. Data from included papers will be extracted according to predefined forms. Findings will be summarized in tables, graphical displays and in a narrative synthesis of the available evidence, complemented with meta-analyses. We will separately review effects of local, far field and occupational exposure. The internal validity of included studies will be assessed using the NTP-OHAT Risk of Bias Rating Tool for Human and Animal Studies, elaborated to observational RF-EMF studies. To rate certainty of the evidence, we will use the OHAT GRADE-based approach for epidemiological studies. This protocol concerns one of the ten different systematic reviews considered in a larger systematic review of the World Health Organization to assess potential health effects of exposure to RF-EMF in the general and working population. PROSPERO CRD42021239432.

Assessment of Indoor-Outdoor Wi-Fi Radiation on Human Body and its Precise SAR Measurement

There has been a lot of awareness concern about the health hazards of RF electromagnetic radiation on the human body, the radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure assessment needs attention. This paper reports experimentally measured electromagnetic radiation emission from public place Wi-Fi devices. Indoor and outdoor measurements are done at different geographic locations in India. For the indoor assessment, the experiment was carried out in the national physical laboratory (NPL) New Delhi for 1-4 antennas Wi-Fi routers at a distance of 0-10-meter range are taken into consideration. The power density and electrical intensity were measured using a spectrum analyzer with isotropic E-field probe TSEMF-B1. For the outdoor measurements, four different Delhi metro stations Wi-fi devices at a distance of 20-meter range towards the train coach and below the Wi-fi routers have been considered. In this experiment, we used an instrument is Narda NBM-550 E-field probe for electric field and radiated power density estimation. In addition, the human whole body 3D model has been simulated in a free space environment, the measured outcome of indoor-outdoor electromagnetic radiation and specific absorption rate (SAR) is compared with the ICNIRP, FCC guideline limits at 2.45-5.87 GHz and precise SAR has been evaluated.

Exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields: Comparison of exposimeters with a novel body-worn distributed meter.

Exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) is often measured with personal exposimeters, but the accuracy of measurements can be hampered as carrying the devices on-body may result in body shielding. Further, the compact design may compromise the frequency selectivity of the sensor. The aim of this study was to compare measurements obtained using a multi-band body-worn distributed-exposimeter (BWDM) with two commercially available personal exposimeters (ExpoM-RF and EmeSpy 200) under real-life conditions. The BWDM measured power density in 10 frequency bands (800, 900, 1800, 2100, 2600MHz, DECT 1900MHz, WiFi 2.4GHz; with separate uplink/downlink bands for 900, 1800 and 2100MHz); using 20 separate antennas integrated in a vest and placed on diametrically opposite locations on the body, to minimize body-shielding. RF-EMF exposure data were collected from several microenvironments (e.g. shopping areas, train stations, outdoor rural/ urban residential environments, etc.) by walking around pre-defined areas/routes in Belgium, Spain, France, the Netherlands and Switzerland. Measurements were taken every 1-4s with the BWDM in parallel with an ExpoM-RF and an EmeSpy 200 exposimeter. We calculated medians and interquartile ranges (IQRs) and compared difference, ratios and correlations of geometric mean RF-EMF exposure levels per microenvironment as measured with the exposimeters and the BWDM. Across 267 microenvironments, medians and IQR of total BWDM measured RF-EMF exposure was 0.13 (0.05-0.33) mW/m2. Difference: IQR of exposimeters minus BWDM exposure levels was -0.011 (-0.049 to 0.0095) mW/m2 for the ExpoM-RF and -0.056 (-0.14 to -0.017) for the EmeSpy 200; ratios (exposimeter/BWDM) of total exposure had an IQR of 0.79 (0.55-1.1) for the ExpoM-RF and 0.29 (0.22-0.38) for the EmeSpy 200. Spearman correlations were 0.93 for the ExpoM-RF vs the BWDM and 0.96 for the EmeSpy 200 vs the BWDM. Results indicate that exposimeters worn on-body provide somewhat lower total RF-EMF exposure as compared to measurements conducted with the BWDM, in line with effects from body shielding. Ranking of exposure levels of microenvironments showed high correspondence between the different device types. Our results are informative for the interpretation of existing epidemiological research results.

The effects of radiofrequency exposure on male fertility and adverse reproductive outcomes: A protocol for two systematic reviews of human observational studies with meta-analysis

BackgroundThe World Health Organization (WHO) is bringing together evidence on radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure in relation to health outcomes, previously identified as priorities for evaluation by experts in the field, to inform exposure guidelines. A suite of systematic reviews are being undertaken by a network of topic experts and methodologists in order to collect, assess and synthesise data relevant to these guidelines. Here, we present the protocol for the systematic review on the effect of exposure to RF on adverse reproductive outcomes (human observational studies), also referred to as Systematic Review (SR) 3 within the series of systematic reviews currently being commissioned. ObjectivesFollowing the WHO handbook for guideline development and the COSTER conduct guidelines, we will systematically review the effect of RF-EMF exposure on both male fertility (SR3A) and adverse pregnancy outcomes (SR3B) in human observational studies. Herein we adhere to the PRISMA-P reporting guidelines. Data sourcesWe will conduct a broad search for potentially relevant records relevant for both reviews within the following bibliographic databases: MEDLINE; Embase; and EMF Portal. We will also conduct searches of grey literature through relevant databases and organisational websites. RF-EMF experts will also be consulted. We will hand search citation and reference lists of included study records. Study eligibility criteriaWe will include quantitative human observational studies on the effect of RF-EMF exposure: (in SR3A) in adult male participants on infertility, sperm morphology, concentration or total sperm count or motility; and (in SR3B) in preconception adults or pregnant women on preterm birth, small for gestational age (associated with intrauterine growth restriction), miscarriage, stillbirth and congenital anomalies. Study appraisal and synthesis methodsTitles, abstracts and then full texts will be screened in blinded duplicate against eligibility criteria with input from a third reviewer as required. Data extraction from included studies will be completed by two reviewers as will risk of bias assessment using the Office of Health Assessment and Translation (OHAT) tool. If appropriate we will undertake meta-analysis to pool effect measures and explore heterogeneity using sub-group analyses or meta-regression as feasible. We will conduct sensitivity analysis to assess the impact of any assumptions made throughout the review process. The OHAT methodology, based on the GRADE guidelines for evidence assessment, will be used to evaluate the certainty of evidence per outcome and to conclude the level of evidence of a health effect. ConclusionThis manuscript details the protocols for two systematic reviews. The aims of publishing details of both protocols are to: pre-specify their scope and methods; reduce the impact of reviewer bias; promote transparency and replicability; and improve the review process. Prospero registrationCRD42021265401 (SR3A), CRD42021266268 (SR3B).

The effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields exposure on human self-reported symptoms: A protocol for a systematic review of human experimental studies

BackgroundThe technological applications of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) have been steadily increasing since the 1950s across multiple sectors exposing large proportions of the population. This fact has raised concerns related to the potential consequences to people’s health. The World Health Organization (WHO) is assessing the potential health effects of exposure to RF-EMF and has carried out an international survey amongst experts, who have identified six priority topics to be further addressed through systematic reviews, whereof the effects on symptoms is one of them. We report here the systematic review protocol of experimental studies in humans assessing the effects of RF-EMF on symptoms. ObjectiveOur objectives are to assess the effects of exposure to electromagnetic fields (compared to no or lower exposure levels) on symptoms in human subjects. We will also assess the accuracy of perception of presence of exposure in volunteers with and without idiopathic environmental intolerance attributed to electromagnetic fields (IEI-EMF). Eligibility criteriaWe will search relevant literature sources (e.g. the Web of Science, Medline, Embase, Epistemonikos) for randomized trials (comparing at least two arms) and randomised crossover trials of RF-EMF exposure that have assessed the effects on symptoms. We will also include studies that have measured the accuracy of the perception of the presence or absence of exposure. We will include studies in any language. Study appraisal and synthesisStudies will be assessed against inclusion criteria by two independent reviewers. Data on study characteristics, participants, exposure, comparators and effects will be extracted using a specific template for this review, by two independent reviewers. Discrepancies will be solved by consensus. Risk of bias (ROB) will be assessed using the ROB Rating Tool for Human and Animal Studies and the level of confidence in the evidence of the exposure-outcome relations will be assessed using the GRADE approach. For the perception studies, we will use adapted versions of the ROB tool and GRADE assessment. Where appropriate, data will be combined using meta-analytical techniques.

Estimated all-day and evening whole-brain radiofrequency electromagnetic fields doses, and sleep in preadolescents

ObjectiveTo investigate the association of estimated all-day and evening whole-brain radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) doses with sleep disturbances and objective sleep measures in preadolescents. MethodsWe included preadolescents aged 9–12 years from two population-based birth cohorts, the Dutch Generation R Study (n = 974) and the Spanish INfancia y Medio Ambiente Project (n = 868). All-day and evening overall whole-brain RF-EMF doses (mJ/kg/day) were estimated for several RF-EMF sources including mobile and Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) phone calls (named phone calls), other mobile phone uses, tablet use, laptop use (named screen activities), and far-field sources. We also estimated all-day and evening whole-brain RF-EMF doses in these three groups separately (i.e. phone calls, screen activities, and far-field). The Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children was completed by mothers to assess sleep disturbances. Wrist accelerometers together with sleep diaries were used to measure sleep characteristics objectively for 7 consecutive days. ResultsAll-day whole-brain RF-EMF doses were not associated with self-reported sleep disturbances and objective sleep measures. Regarding evening doses, preadolescents with high evening whole-brain RF-EMF dose from phone calls had a shorter total sleep time compared to preadolescents with zero evening whole-brain RF-EMF dose from phone calls [-11.9 min (95%CI -21.2; −2.5)]. ConclusionsOur findings suggest the evening as a potentially relevant window of RF-EMF exposure for sleep. However, we cannot exclude that observed associations are due to the activities or reasons motivating the phone calls rather than the RF-EMF exposure itself or due to chance finding.

On Actual Maximum Exposure From 5G Multicolumn Radio Base Station Antennas for Electromagnetic Field Compliance Assessment

The traditional approach of radio frequency electromagnetic field exposure compliance assessment is highly conservative when applied to radio base station antennas implementing dynamic beamforming. In this article, an analytical model based on the queuing theory with a hyperexponential service distribution time is developed to assess the time-averaged actual maximum downlink exposure of 5G multicolumn radio base station antennas by taking into account the effects of beam scanning over time in free space. Using the measured antenna radiation patterns, the 5G downlink antenna precoding codebook, and assuming a conservative user equipment distribution, the ratio of the actual maximum exposure to the theoretical maximum exposure with 100% traffic load and 75% time-division duplex downlink duty cycle is found to be less than 0.5 and 0.3 for four-transmitter and eight-transmitter radio base station antennas, respectively. These results show that assuming constant peak power transmission in a fixed direction leads to an overestimate of downlink exposure also from conventional antennas characterized by only a few transmitters in addition to massive multi-input multi-output products.

Tracking Devices for Pets: Health Risk Assessment for Exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields.

Simple SummaryTo increase the probability of reunions occurring between owners and lost pets, tracking devices are applied to pets. The pet’s position is determined by satellites (e.g., GPS) and transmitted by radio frequencies (RFs) to a mobile phone. In this study, the health risks from exposure to radio frequencies emitted by radios, TVs, mobile networks, indoor devices (e.g., WLAN, Bluetooth), mobile phones, and in the use of such tracking devices were investigated. The radiation exposure was found to be well below international limit values, which means that adverse health effects are unlikely to occur. The risk of high exposure of pets is mainly caused by indoor RF-emitting devices, such as WLAN devices. This exposure can be limited through a reduction in the exposure time and an increase in the distance between the animal and the RF-emitting device. Even though the exposure of pets to total radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) levels was found to be below the limit values—and, therefore, not a health risk—recommendations are given for the use of tracking devices and to limit the exposure to indoor devices.Every year, approximately 3% of cats and dogs are lost. In addition to passive methods for identifying pets, radiofrequency tracking devices (TDs) are available. These TDs can track a pet’s geographic position, which is transmitted by radio frequencies. The health risk to the animals from continuous exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) was reviewed. Fourteen out of twenty-one commercially available TDs use 2G, 3G, or 4G mobile networks, and the others work with public frequencies, WLAN, Bluetooth, etc. The exposure of pets to RF-EMFs was assessed, including ambient exposure (radios, TVs, and base stations of mobile networks), exposure from indoor devices (DECT, WLAN, Bluetooth, etc.), and the exposure from TDs. The exposure levels of the three areas were found to be distinctly below the International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) reference levels, which assure far-reaching protection from adverse health effects. The highest uncertainty regarding the exposure of pets was related to that caused by indoor RF-emitting devices using WLAN and DECT. This exposure can be limited considerably through a reduction in the exposure time and an increase in the distance between the animal and the RF-emitting device. Even though the total RF-EMF exposure level experienced by pets was found to be below the reference limits, recommendations were derived to reduce potential risks from exposure to TDs and indoor devices.

Effects of a radio frequency electromagnetic field on honey bee larvae (Apis mellifera) differ in relation to the experimental study design

Exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) at the operating frequencies of different communication devices can cause various biological effects. However, there is a lack of studies on the oxidative stress response and genotoxicity in the honey bee (Apis mellifera) after exposure to RF-EMF. In this study, we investigated the oxidative stress and DNA damage in honey bee larvae situated in waxcomb cells, exposed to modulated RF-EMF 23 Vm-1. The glutathione S-transferase activity decreased, whereas the catalase activity increased significantly in the honey bee larvae upon RF-EMF exposure. Superoxide dismutase activity, the level of lipid peroxidation, and DNA damage were not statistically altered in exposed honey bee larvae when compared to the control group. These results suggest that the biological effects of modulated RF-EMF in honey bee larvae depend on the exposure design.