School Psychology Practice Research Articles

Introduction to the Special Issue–School psychology and Indigenous Peoples: Critical Perspectives and Indigenous-led Approaches

This issue of the Canadian Journal of School Psychology is the first of two parts of a special issue devoted to the intersection of school psychology and Indigenous Peoples within the Canadian context. Given the limited existing literature that is squarely focused on this intersection, the articles in these two issues are collectively a substantive academic contribution to school psychology educators, practitioners, researchers, and students. These articles challenge mainstream practice, training, ethics, and intervention approaches within school psychology, while also describing exemplary collaborations with Indigenous communities and advancements in Indigenizing and decolonizing school psychology training and practice.

Challenging Definitions of Student Success Through Indigenous Involvement: An Opportunity to Inform School Psychology Practice

To achieve educational equity for Indigenous students, school psychologists need to consider the implications of using solely Westernized and Eurocentric educational standards of success. With current practices criticized as limiting and biased, a fitting alternative is the use of holistic frameworks of success aligned with Indigenous peoples’ perspectives on lifelong learning. This paper details a community-led process to define success for Indigenous youth in Aklavik, Northwest Territories inspired by the Canadian Council on Learning Inuit Holistic Lifelong Learning Model. Several key lessons, including the need for ensemble mentorship, emerged from this community-led and strengths-based project that can inform school psychologists seeking to better Indigenize their practice and work toward culturally aligned practices.

Cross-disciplinary structured peer group supervision: school psychology and behavior analysis

ABSTRACT This paper describes the application of structured peer group supervision (SPGS) to support trainees in two distinct but interrelated professional training programs (i.e., school psychology and behavior analysis [online]) implemented within parallel supervision courses at the same university. SPGS was implemented virtually and synchronously and included members from both disciplines. Attention is given to the importance of supervision in school psychology and behavior analysis training and practice. The potential role of SPGS in supervision training is considered. Lessons learned from this cross-disciplinary collaboration are highlighted to enhance potential transferability for those wishing to similarly incorporate SPGS into supervision training.

Escala de Indicadores de Perfil e Atuação de Psicólogos Escolares

Abstract Objective The purpose of this article is to describe the development process of a research instrument, in the format of a self-report scale, to investigate the school psychologists’ profile, their competencies and professional activities indicators. It is based on the historical-cultural psychology, critical school psychology, and competence approach. Method The method used a review of evidence of theoretical and semantic validity of a scale for profile and competencies contains three guiding lines: (a) instructions and sociodemographic characterization of the participant, (b) profile and competencies of the school psychologist (40 items), and (c) school psychology practices (30 items). Several procedures were carried out for the development and validation of the instrument. The initial version was reviewed by two groups of expert judges, from Brazil and Portugal. The judges’ review led to the removal of some items. The new version was submitted to pilot studies for theoretical and semantic validation. Results As a result of these validations, the most recent version of the scale was obtained for use in Brazil and Portugal. Conclusion It is expected that the instrument will contribute to the theoretical-conceptual and methodological expansion of the psychologist’s profile, affecting how interventions will be carried out in educational and academic spaces from an institutional and collective perspective.

Understanding African American vernacular English and reading achievement: Implications for the science of reading.

The purpose of this article is to discuss issues of language, specifically African American Vernacular English (AAVE), as it relates to the reading performance of African American children. Previous research on the science of reading provides a research-based framework that is a starting point for evidence-based research that can be used to improve the reading outcomes of African American children. School psychology literature is limited in its inclusion of issues posed by deficit perspectives of AAVE with Black children and reading achievement. Given that practicing school psychologists spend significant portions of their time conducting assessments related to identifying and remediating reading problems, an increased awareness on how AAVE can impact African American children's reading performance is necessary. Implications for research and practice will be discussed, such as inclusion of instruments to differentiate between reading difficulties and dialect differences (i.e., Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation). (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Advancing Preservice Consultation Training Through University-Community Partnership

ABSTRACT This paper describes consultation training experiences offered through a decades-long partnership between a university school psychology graduate program and a local Head Start center. The collaboration provides a field placement setting where beginning students engage in activities tied to first-year coursework, and an advanced practicum site for doctoral students who oversee first-year students’ classroom-based activities and in turn are jointly supervised by program faculty and the center’s Special Services Manager. Through these experiences, graduate students develop competencies in client-centered, consultee-centered, and systems-level consultation, with opportunities to engage in an array of activities aligned with key updates to the 2020 NASP Professional Standards particularly in Domains Six (Services to Support Safe and Supportive Schools), Seven (Family, School, and Community Collaboration), and Eight (Equitable Practices for Diverse Student Populations). By focusing on the school environment, community collaboration, social justice, and equitable practices, these updated domains highlight the role of ecological and systemic factors in school psychology practice and training. Trainees support the center’s efforts to function as a trauma-informed organization whose members recognize and respond to trauma in a manner that promotes safety, collaboration, empowerment, and other trauma-informed practice principles. They do this by consulting with parents and teachers, contributing to staff professional development on such topics as adverse childhood experiences and caregiver stress management, and facilitating meetings with parents and teachers around issues such as trauma-informed discipline. We discuss how these activities align with the 2020 NASP domains, with particular attention to ecological and systemic perspectives.

The impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on school psychology internship outcomes

AbstractThe Ohio Internship Program in School Psychology was forced to adapt abruptly to the changing circumstances brought on by the novel coronavirus (COVID‐19) pandemic beginning in March 2020. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which the school psychology internship outcomes were negatively affected by the COVID‐19 pandemic in terms of supervisors' ratings of intern competencies, the number of students served by interns, and the outcomes of academic and behavior interventions supported by interns. Findings of the annual evaluation of the Ohio Internship Program in School Psychology for the school year directly affected by the pandemic (2020–2021) were compared to the findings for the year the pandemic began (2019–2020) and the 3 years before the start of the pandemic. The results provide evidence of gains in professional competencies and positive outcomes for students served by interns. The results also highlight racial disparities in the counts of students provided school psychological services during the pandemic. Implications for school psychology graduate preparation and practice are discussed.

TOOLBOX Effects on K-2 Student Growth in Social-Emotional Competence: Evidence from a Quasi-Experimental Study

TOOLBOX is a school-based social and emotional learning (SEL) program to teach and reinforce 12 tools (e.g., Breathing Tool, Courage Tool) for healthy youth development. Although TOOLBOX has been broadly adopted, it remains largely untested. This quasi-experimental study aims to examine the relationship between TOOLBOX implementation and the growth of social-emotional competence (SEC) among K-2 students. First, we compare the growth trajectories of SEC between TOOLBOX and non-TOOLBOX conditions during one academic year. Then, within the TOOLBOX condition, we compare two implementation directives—TOOLBOX Standard and TOOLBOX Primer—to assess (a) the extent to which TOOLBOX was implemented and (b) the SEC growth trajectories among youth. Two district schools were given an implementation directive and materials to implement TOOLBOX Standard curriculum (full, structured lesson plans and strategies with higher dosage anticipated), and two district schools to implement TOOLBOX Primer (basic, introductory lesson plans and strategies with lower dosage anticipated). There were no dosage benchmarks available for either condition. Two additional district schools practiced as usual (non-TOOLBOX). The study sample consisted of 1766 K-2 students and their 80 classroom teachers. Student SEC was measured three times using the Devereux Student Strengths Assessment-Mini, a teacher-completed brief behavioral rating scale. Implementation dosage and quality were measured three times using teacher self-reports. Latent growth modeling and t tests were conducted. In Fall, SEC did not differ between TOOLBOX and non-TOOLBOX conditions. TOOLBOX students, however, showed a greater increase in SEC over the year. Within the TOOLBOX condition, Standard teachers incorporated the “tools” into academic instruction more frequently in Spring compared to Primer teachers. For most other implementation variables, no statistical difference was found between TOOLBOX implementation directives. Student SEC growth trajectories did not differ between Standard and Primer schools. Quasi-experimental evidence supports the overall benefits of TOOLBOX on K-2 students’ social and emotional growth. We discuss possible reasons for non-differential outcomes between Standard and Primer implementation directives within the TOOLBOX condition (e.g., gap between implementation directives and actual implementation behaviors). The gap between implementation directives and behaviors may provide an impetus for practicing school psychologists to contribute to more robust forms of implementation leadership (e.g., remove obstacles for implementation) and offer implementation support (e.g., coaching, feedback loops).

Perspectives of practicing school psychologists during COVID-19: A multi-country, mixed methods investigation.

COVID-19 presented a range of challenges to the delivery of school psychology services in countries around the world. The current study aimed to investigate the practices of school psychologists from the United States of America, Australia, Germany, Canada, and the United Kingdom, including changes to practice and exploration of the factors that supported the delivery of school psychology services during the pandemic. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from 1,030 school psychologists and analyzed using a mixed methods, multiple case study design. Differing impacts of the pandemic on the working hours of school psychologists were reported across countries. Participants in all countries reported a shift to online working, with an increased focus on consultation and intervention and a reduction in psychoeducational assessments. School psychologists from all nations emphazised the importance of self-care strategies, social connections and physical activity and the role of support via supervision or professional networks. Access to appropriate technology and responsive workplace policies and procedures were also identified as important. Results have implications for the internationalization of the school psychology profession and can inform international school psychology planning in response to future crises.

Centering the contributions, perspectives, and experiences of Black school psychologists: Commentary on Proctor (2022)

This commentary offers a reflection on Proctor's (2022) contribution to the special issue. In particular, it focuses on three primary threads: (a) centering Black voices in school psychology's history; b) applying an anti-racist lens to recruitment and retention research and practices; and c) recognizing the role of historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) in advancing school psychology. Future directions for school psychology research and practice are discussed.

Ethical Dilemmas in School Psychology: Which Dilemmas Are Most Prevalent Today and How Well Prepared Are School Psychologists to Face Them?

Professional organization ethical codes are adopted to protect the public by educating their members to standards of conduct and by facilitating resolution of ethical complaints. Given that the last survey on ethics in school psychology was conducted over a decade ago, the aim of this study was to investigate the ethical dilemmas practitioners face today, along with their preparedness for resolving these dilemmas. We also examined workplace resources and whether preparedness and resolution were related to background variables (i.e., degree, setting, ethics training). Results indicated most school psychologists experienced at least one ethical dilemma over the past year, mostly in the areas of assessment and administrative pressure. Although most participants felt prepared to face ethical dilemmas, relatively few used a systematic decision-making model to resolve them. Last, most school psychologists reported feeling relatively unprepared for ethically delivering psychological services via telehealth. Implications for research and practice are discussed. Impact Statement Ethical school psychological practice is imperative to ensure effective and appropriate systems-level functioning and individual students’ educational and psychological needs are met. This study examined school psychologists’ experiences with ethical dilemmas and how various factors relate to their resolution of such dilemmas. The study findings are used to delineate implications for training and practice.

Training to Work with Interpreters in US School Psychology Graduate Programs.

Despite rapidly increasing cultural and linguistic diversity in US schools, the majority of psychoeducational evaluations will be conducted by monolingual, English-speaking school psychologists. As such, the appropriate use of interpreters has been identified as a critical skill in working with emergent bilinguals and their families. Surveys of practicing school psychologists conducting assessments with emergent bilinguals indicate a lack of knowledge and training in the use of interpreters; however, few studies have examined the extent to which school psychology graduate students are trained in the appropriate use of interpreters. Utilizing survey methodology, this study examined school psychology graduate students’ training in and preparedness to work with interpreters, as well as their knowledge of best practices in the use of interpreters. Current graduate students and interns enrolled in school psychology master’s, specialist, and doctoral programs in 36 states throughout the USA (n = 364) responded to the survey. The majority of participants were White (61.5%), monolingual (70.3%), and seeking a master’s or specialist degree (71.2%). Survey responses suggest that graduate students and interns’ training, knowledge, and preparedness to work with interpreters is lacking. A qualitative analysis of the open-ended question revealed that first-hand experience working with interpreters was among the most beneficial types of training experiences for graduate students and interns. Implications for how program directors and graduate-level faculty can provide better training for their students in the use of interpreters are discussed.

The Role of Racial Match Between Students and Teachers in School-Based Consultation

Disparities between the educational outcomes of students of color and their White peers have persisted across decades. Multicultural consultee-centered consultation has the potential to mitigate negative outcomes for students of color by improving the knowledge and skills of teachers. However, more empirical research is needed to understand the role of diversity within the consultative relationship and problem-solving process. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of racial diversity between students and teachers during school-based consultation on the perceptions school psychologists have of collaboration, teacher expectations of students, and student–teacher relationships, as school psychologists commonly serve as school-based consultants. The study employed an experimental design, in which 83 practicing school psychologists were randomly assigned to watch videos of a teacher describing a student referral problem in a racial match or racial mismatch condition. Results suggested school psychologists’ perceptions of the collaborative relationship were more positive when students and teachers were Black compared to when they were White. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed. Impact Statement This is the only known experimental study conducted in over 20 years to examine the impact of student and teacher racial differences within school-based consultation. Results suggested that school psychologists perceived the collaborative relationship with a teacher to be more positive when both the student and teacher were Black compared to when the student and teacher were White. Given the predominantly White sample, these findings highlight the importance of culturally responsive strategies even when members of the consultation triad are racially matched.

Translating reports: School psychologists, knowledge-making and pedagogy

This paper is a post-qualitative inquiry (PQI) exploring how, and with what effect, school psychologists support the translation of psychoeducational reports into pedagogy for children who experience learning difficulties. Using the knowledge-making practices of three Australian school psychologists, and my own experience as a practicing school psychologist, Rhodes & Lancaster’s (2019) evidence-making framework is utilised to analyse reports through the theoretical perspectives of relational materialism. This analysis suggests acts of translation are produced by the way in which the authoring psychologist is positioned within relational assemblages of material (e.g., report format) and psychosocial (e.g., beliefs) components found at the intersection of education and psychology. By evidencing the utility of reports through theory and practice, the inquiry illustrates how the practical meaning, value and effect of reports is not pre-determined and fixed. Instead, it suggests their utility is relational and dependent on context-specific conditions and the way in which school psychologists respond within these conditions. Implications for practice are discussed.

Examining School Psychologists’ Attitudes Toward Standardized Assessment Tools

Despite a call for evidence-based practice in school psychology, limited research on the topic of evidence-based assessment exists. To begin to address this gap in the research, a modified version of Jenson–Doss and Hawley’s (2010) Attitudes Toward Standardized Assessment (ASA) scale was administered to 371 U.S. school psychologists. Examination of the modified ASA’s factor structure suggested that a bifactor model with a single overall domain and three sub-domains was the most parsimonious. Indices of dimensionality indicated that the overall score may be the best indicator of school psychologist’s perceptions of standardized assessment. Additionally, school psychologists’ reported favorable attitudes of standardized assessment compared to clinical judgment alone. Limitations and implications for future research are discussed.

Adolescent mental health profiles through a latent dual-factor approach

The dual-factor model of mental health emphasizes the integration of subjective well-being and psychopathology to obtain a complete conceptualization of mental health. When used in schoolwide screenings, this dual-factor approach provides a more comprehensive picture of students' mental health. In a sample of adolescents (N = 404) attending a Midwestern U.S. middle school (Grades 6–8), the current study empirically identified mental health groups through latent profile analysis (LPA) and examined how profile membership was predicted by various demographic variables, academic achievement, general grit, academic grit, and growth mindset. Three mental health profiles emerged: Complete Mental Health (above average life satisfaction and affect, below average internalizing and externalizing problems), Symptomatic but Content (average to above average life satisfaction and affect, above average internalizing and externalizing difficulties), and Troubled (below average life satisfaction and affect, above average internalizing and externalizing difficulties). These profiles partially supported the dual-factor model of mental health, although a vulnerable group was not identified. Gender, SES, racial identity, and IEP status were significant predictors of mental health profile membership. Academic achievement, general grit, academic grit, and growth mindset were also significant predictors of mental health group membership. Limitations, future directions, and implications are discussed, including how these findings inform school psychological theory and practice.

Incorporating callous-unemotional behaviors into school-based research.

This study investigated the utility of including teacher-reported callous-unemotional (CU) behaviors in the assessment of disruptive behaviors in school-based research. Participants included 138 first- and second-grade children (68% male; 76% eligible for free or reduced-price lunch; 61% Black, 9% Latinx, 23% White, and 7% multiracial) who completed assessments during the baseline assessment of an intervention study. Results indicated that teachers could distinguish CU from traditional indicators of disruptive behavior, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) behaviors and conduct problems (CP). When considered alone, there was mixed evidence for the utility of CU behaviors. Although higher levels of CU behaviors explained unique variation in teacher-reported social competence and global impairment, CU behaviors did not explain unique variation in disciplinary infractions, classroom behavior, or academic functioning after accounting for ADHD and CP behaviors. A different pattern of results was evident when CU was considered in conjunction with ADHD and CP behaviors. Latent profile analyses identified three subgroups of participants (i.e., a nondisruptive group, an ADHD group, and a comorbid group, who exhibited elevated levels of ADHD, CP, and CU). Compared to the nondisruptive group, the ADHD group exhibited higher rates of off-task classroom behavior and worse academic functioning. The comorbid group exhibited moderate-to-large differences from both groups on teacher-reported and objective outcomes. The implications of these results are discussed with respect to the potential value of incorporating CU behaviors, which are becoming prominent in clinical psychology and psychiatry, into school-based research and for school psychology practice. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Integrating Intersectionality, Social Determinants of Health, and Healing: A New Training Framework for School-Based Mental Health

Social justice-centered training has progressed in school psychology, yet training and practice still do not adequately address systems-level influences on mental health, let alone focus on dismantling the systemic inequities that adversely affect the wellbeing of marginalized children and youth. An equity- and intersectional justice-minded framework for training future school psychologists in school-based mental health is presented, informed by the theories of intersectionality, critical race theory, social determinants of health, and radical healing. The proposed framework is based on reflective practice and incorporates three pillars that emphasize the importance of decentralizing psychodiagnostic assessment, centralizing systems-level work, and renewing focus on strengths and healing. To advance training that critically evaluates social factors that affect child wellbeing while honoring children’s identities and strengths, various ways in which graduate programs can enact this paradigm shift are discussed. Future directions for the field, including research and policy, are also presented. Impact Statement This article offers a framework to train school psychologists on how to intervene at the systems and societal levels to promote equity in child mental health. The first pillar emphasizes the need to decentralize psychodiagnostic assessment in school psychology practice—in order to move away from predominantly reactive, deficit-focused assessment activities that perpetuate inequities and to carve out more time for prevention of mental health difficulties and promotion of wellness. The second pillar centralizes systems-level work, particularly through additional training in MTSS, systems-level consultation to build capacity and develop novel initiatives to address social determinants of mental health, and advocacy and policy work. The third pillar involves training with a renewed focus on strengths, as helping marginalized children resist and heal from oppression requires reversing entrenched tendencies to pathologize, and building on individual, familial, and cultural strengths to foster wellbeing.

Lessons from COVID-19 and the practice of school psychology: opportunity for a changed landscape

ABSTRACT Objective Due to the COVID pandemic psychologists have been required to rapidly adapt to a different type of service delivery to ensure safety of the public and maintain the provision of essential psychological services within schools. In response, telehealth or online counselling became the norm across much of Australia. Psychologists in school settings were required to move many traditional face-to-face psychological services online to continue to support the needs of school communities. This project aimed to identify changes made to the practice of school psychology during COVID, the efficacy of these changes and potential applications within the field post COVID. Method Registered psychologists working in school settings across Australia were invited to participate in an online survey. Fifty-six participants completed questions related to their school psychological practice during COVID, they also completed the Counsellor’s Crisis Self Efficacy Scale, rating their level of confidence to respond in a crisis. Results Results identified a range of technology-informed changes to practice during COVID including greater use of telehealth in provision of service to clients, parents and schools. Respondents reported moderate to high levels of self-efficacy overall in their ability to respond during the crisis, and significant differences according to level of experience were identified. Conclusions Respondents identified potential post COVID changes to practice that represented greater flexibility in modes of service delivery. Key Points What is already known about this topic: (1) Impact of COVID-19 on school psychological practice. (2) Benefits of telehealth. (3) Influences on crisis intervention self-efficacy. What this study adds: (1)Technology enabling factors to school psychological practice. (2)Relationship between crisis intervention self-efficacy and experience. (3)Opportunities to change model of service delivery.

The effect of graph standardization on intervention evaluation of practitioner‐created graphs

AbstractSingle‐case design (SCD) is frequently utilized in applied contexts, such as schools or clinics, due to its utility in evaluating individual intervention effects of students. Data collected in SCD are often displayed in a linear graph, which can vary drastically in their construction leading to inconsistencies in rater interpretation. This has led to a need for a standardized format for linear graphs for practitioners and researchers to follow when constructing graphs. The purpose of this study was both to evaluate how well practitioner‐created graphs adhered to Standard Assembly (SA) guidelines and to investigate visual analytic differences in graphs generated by practitioners and the same data replotted in adherence to SA guidelines. Practitioner graphs were collected from fourteen practicing school psychologists and evaluated against SA guidelines. Graphs were found to have vast differences in graph characteristics. Twenty‐seven participants, faculty members with experience in SCD, were asked to evaluate 32 graphs—16 of which were practitioner created and the other 16 being the same data sets regraphed according to SA standards. Participants were asked to rate the interpretability of each graph and evaluate the magnitude of the intervention effect. Results indicate that there were no significant differences between the practitioner‐created graphs and SA graphs in intervention effect estimates, but the SA graphs were rated as significantly more interpretable.