School Psychology Practice Research Articles

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN A THREE-TIERED APPROACH TO SCHOOL DISCIPLINE POLICY AND PRACTICE

Research indicates that school discipline policies and practices have a significant influence on both student and school functioning. The purpose of this article is to uncover how the ethical standards guiding the field of school psychology inform school decisions about discipline in a three-tiered approach. Various discipline approaches, empirical research evaluating the effectiveness of these approaches, and the role of school psychologists in school discipline decision making are reviewed. Ultimately, this integration of theory, empirical research, and ethical standards points to the importance of creating comprehensive and individualized school discipline policies that apply ethically sound practices at all three tiers of intervention. Implications for practicing school psychologists are discussed. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Multicultural Supervision: What Difference Does Difference Make?

Multicultural sensitivity and competency represent critical components to contemporary practice and supervision in school psychology. Internship and supervision experiences are a capstone experience for many new school psychologists; however, few receive formal training and supervision in multicultural competencies. As an increased number of students from culturally diverse backgrounds are accepted into school psychology training programs, it is likely students will encounter supervisory experiences in which the supervisor is of a culture other than their own. This paper explores cultural factors impacting supervision, reviews research on cultural match between supervisor and supervisee, as well as highlights best practice considerations for engaging in effective multicultural supervision.

The Influences of Linguistic Demand and Cultural Loading on Cognitive Test Scores

The increasing diversity of the U.S. population has resulted in increased concerns about the psychological assessment of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. To date, little empirical research supports recommendations in test selection and interpretation, such as those presented in the Culture–Language Interpretative Matrix (C-LIM). The current investigation was conducted to empirically evaluate the validity of the C-LIM classifications for the Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, Third Edition (WJ III COG). The WJ III Normative Update standardization sample was used to determine the extent to which the two dimensions of the C-LIM (i.e., cultural loading and linguistic demand) influence performance on 20 of the WJ III tests. Results provide support for a re-classification of the C-LIM. Implications for research and school psychology practices are discussed.

SUPERVISION IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: THE DEVELOPMENTAL/ECOLOGICAL/PROBLEM‐SOLVING MODEL

Effective supervision models guide the supervisory relationship and supervisory tasks leading to reflective and purposeful practice. The Developmental/Ecological/Problem‐Solving (DEP) Model provides a contemporary framework for supervision specific to school psychology. Designed for the school psychology internship, the DEP Model is also applicable to all pre‐service and advanced field‐based training, as well as career‐long continuing professional development. The Developmental domain initiates training at the functioning skill level of the supervisee and progresses toward independent competency. The Ecological domain addresses the multiple systemic contexts that influence school psychology practice and prepares the intern to intervene within both individual and systemic contexts. The Problem‐Solving domain focuses on the application of data‐based decision making and evidence‐based interventions to the full range of school psychology activities. It provides a systematic schema to address student, family, and school needs.

Impact of Children’s Identified Disability Status on Parent and Teacher Behavior Ratings

This study was an examination of the possible influence of a child’s pre-identified disability on parent and teacher behavior ratings and whether a child’s disability status affected parent ratings, when controlling for parenting stress. The sample included 206 kindergarten through third grade students and their teachers and parents from a Midwestern town and surrounding area. The results indicated that a child’s identified disability had a greater impact on parent ratings than teacher ratings of a child’s behavior. Compared to parents of a child without a disability, parents of a child with an identified disability reported significantly higher levels of externalizing problems and significantly lower levels of adaptive and social skills. In contrast, the negative effect of a child’s identified disability on teacher ratings was evident only in adaptive and social skills. Additionally, after controlling for parenting stress, a child’s identified disability accounted for a small but significant proportion of the variance in parent ratings of child externalizing problems and social skills. The findings may inform school psychology practice regarding behavior assessment and case conceptualization.

Plantão psicológico como modalidade de atendimento em Psicologia Escolar: limites e possibilidades

As praticas de Plantao Psicologico na escola dissociam tais intervencoes das atividades da Psicologia Escolar, assim como relacionam essa modalidade a necessidade da implementacao de um servico que lhe de a devida visibilidade institucional. Este trabalho considera tais referencias passiveis de reflexao a partir da pratica profissional do autor e da leitura atualizada em Psicologia Escolar. Para este fim, toma-se como referencia o conceito de Clinica Ampliada e sua correlacao com a modalidade de atendimento Plantao Psicologico. Problematiza-se a oportunidade do psicologo ou psicologa escolar, dentre outras acoes, possibilitar escuta e acolhimento a qualquer pessoa da comunidade escolar que busque esse apoio de modo espontâneo no momento de sua emergencia. Para isso, reflete-se sobre a condicao do Plantao Psicologico como servico e como modalidade de atendimento na escola, bem como sobre a psicologia escolar como area de atuacao inserida nesse meio complexo de olhares e perspectivas.

School Psychology in Portugal: Practitioners' Characteristics and Practices

Little empirical evidence is available on the professional characteristics and practices of school psychologists in Portugal. This study surveyed a total of 477 Portuguese school psychologists employed in public (80%) and private schools (20%). Portuguese school psychologists are described with regard to demographic, professional, and educational backgrounds, school settings, roles performed, and main target populations served. Evaluating and counseling regular education students, vocational guidance, and special education-related activities emerged as the most time-consuming professional practices. A professional practice primarily focused on students, mainly from the highest education levels, was also observed. Results are compared with findings of previous surveys and reviewed in the context of the current literature on the school psychologist's role. Implications for the field are also provided.

Teacher Progress Monitoring of Instructional and Behavioral Management Practices: An Evidence-Based Approach to Improving Classroom Practices

In the era of teacher evaluation and effectiveness, assessment tools that identify and monitor educators' instruction and behavioral management practices are in high demand. The Classroom Strategies Scale (CSS) Observer Form is a multidimensional teacher progress monitoring tool designed to assess teachers' usage of instructional and behavioral management strategies in elementary school. The present article briefly describes the CSS methodology and psychometric properties. The CSS consists of a three-part assessment: (a) direct classroom observation, (b) Strategy Rating Scales of instruction and behavioral management, and (c) a classroom checklist. A teacher case example is presented to illustrate the CSS's clinical utility in schools. Implications for school psychological practice are outlined.

Effective Yard Supervision: from Needs Assessment to Customized Training

Most educational scholars agree that appropriate supervision of children is critical for positive youth development. Supervision is especially important during situations where children have a large degree of freedom and unstructured interaction, such as during recess. Despite the apparent importance of supervision of children at recess, there is little published research on the training of yard supervisors. The goal of the present study was to conduct a needs assessment and develop a customized training for yard supervisors at a public elementary school in an effort to help yard supervisors respond more effectively to student conflicts and promote a positive school climate. Needs assessment data used to inform the yard supervisor training were gathered through two methods: (a) playground observations of yard supervisor and student behavior and (b) yard supervisor interviews and student focus groups. Results of the needs assessment, and a description of the yard supervisor training developed from these findings, are presented, with particular emphasis placed on the implications of the study for practicing school psychologists.

PROFESSIONAL ROLES AND PRACTICES OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS IN URBAN SCHOOLS

An empirical focus on the perspectives and experiences of practitioners who work in urban school districts is lacking in the school psychology literature. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the professional roles and practices of school psychologists who serve students, families, and schools located in urban school districts. School psychologists who practice in five racially and ethnically diverse urban districts were surveyed regarding their demographic profiles, professional practices, and current professional needs. In comparison to data reported in demographic surveys conducted by the National Association of School Psychologists, there were significant differences in demographics, practices, and issues that face school psychologists in urban settings. Implications are discussed in terms of improving services for urban populations.

MULTI‐LEVEL CONSULTATION WITH AN URBAN SCHOOL DISTRICT TO PROMOTE 9TH GRADE SUPPORTS FOR ON‐TIME GRADUATION

This case study documents a multi‐level consultation regarding a district‐led initiative, designed to increase the number of students starting 10th grade on track for on‐time high school graduation. The case study focuses on one neighborhood high school (9th grade student N = 440) in an urban district in the Intermountain West. Consultation occurred with teachers, teaching teams, support staff, school administrators, and district personnel. Data sources included consultation notes, observations, surveys, interviews, and district records. The findings included that students enter with various risk profiles that require immediate differentiation of supports, students’ entering risk profiles were not fully predictive of where they would be by the end of 9th grade, the consultation with teaching teams and teachers increased their ability to support student needs, and the systems‐level consultation led to significant building and district changes. Suggestions for the practice of school psychology and future research are given.

Child rights as a framework for advancing professional standards for practice, ethics, and professional development in school psychology

The United Nations (1989) Convention on the Rights of the Child was designed to promote and protect the survival, development, and well-being of children, thus extending human rights to individuals from birth to age 18. This article examines the consistency of the Articles of the Convention with the professional standards for school psychology, as articulated by the major organizations representing the profession in the USA––American Psychological Association, International School Psychology Association, and National Association of School Psychologists. Although the standards for ethics, practice, and training of these organizations are generally consistent with the UN Convention, the standards lack the specificity provided by the Convention’s 54 Articles. To facilitate the application of child rights’ principles in school psychology practice, we propose a model for integrating the professional standards with the Articles of the Convention. In addition, we describe a curriculum for training of school psychologists, developed through a partnership of several organizations, which is consistent with the model. In the curriculum, the school psychologist is regarded as the mesosystem in the child’s ecology, to characterize the psychologist’s central role in ensuring the promotion and protection of child rights within school, family, community, and society.

Integrating School-based Family Counseling into School Psychology Practice

Aim : To integrate theoretical and applied knowledge regarding the benefits and limitations of school psychologists incorporating school-based family counselling into their practice. Study Design : Critical literature review paper. Structure of Paper : First, a brief rationale for delivering counselling to families at schools is given. Second, a description of the role of school psychologists is offered, based on the guidelines of professional psychological organizations in the United States and Canada. Third, the benefits and limitations of school psychologists incorporating school-based family counselling into their practice are discussed. Lastly, recommendations for promoting a role expansion for school psychologists in the school system are provided. Key Findings : The literature presents controversial arguments for school psychologists performing broader roles. On one hand, they have ethical responsibility to become involved in interventions and programs aimed at addressing problems that are broader than merely assessing and identifying children with special needs. However, other factors including the setting in which school psychologists work, the shortage of professionals, the overlap in roles with other qualified practitioners within the school, and the lack of training and experience in family counselling, present as barriers for school psychologists’ Mini -review Article

Integrating Neuropsychology and School Psychology: Potential and Pitfalls

The neurological basis of learning disabilities (LD), and other handicapping conditions commonly found in school-age children, makes the integration of neuropsychology and school psychology plausible. However, there has been longstanding debate over the required level of education, training, supervision, and credentialing needed for the practice of neuropsychology in the school and attempts at integration have thus far been controversial. Although the competent practice of school psychology requires some familiarity with neuropsychology foundations, terminology, techniques, and contributions to the understanding of disorders of childhood and adolescence, training guidelines are lacking. The demarcation between psychoeducational and neuropsychological techniques has become increasingly blurred; neuropsychology is already practiced in schools without consensus regarding training and credentialing. This paper briefly traces the history of neuropsychology in the schools from the early 1980s to the present, describing both the potential and the pitfalls for the integration of clinical child neuropsychology and school psychology, including implications for training.

Perceptions of School Psychologists Regarding Barriers to Response to Intervention (RTI) Implementation

As Response to Intervention (RTI) models continue to be implemented, an important research question is how school psychologists are experiencing the transition to RTI practice. In order to better understand the experiences of school psychologists, interviews with seven practicing school psychologists regarding their perceptions of barriers and challenges to successful implementation of RTI were conducted. Participants identified a number of potential barriers and challenges, including the need for leadership, structural barriers such as lack of time and training, and resistance from school staff, including school psychologists. These findings should help inform professional development for school psychologists making the transition to practice in an RTI model, and also help in understanding the many possible barriers that arise when attempting significant educational reform efforts such as RTI.

School Psychologists' Sense of Self-Efficacy for Consultation

The Consultation Self-Efficacy Scale (CSES) was developed and validated to assess school psychologists' perceptions of self-efficacy for engaging in school-based consultation. A pilot study with graduate students (N = 92) indicated high internal consistency (α = .99) and provided evidence of discriminant validity, as a group with more consultation experience had significantly higher total self-efficacy scores (M = 512.25) than a moderately experienced group (M = 437.35). Subsequently, a sample of 347 practicing school psychologists completed a revised CSES, consistently endorsing moderate to high levels of consultation self-efficacy (M = 404.08, SD = 51.73). Although consultation self-efficacy was hypothesized to be a multidimensional construct, exploratory factor analysis indicated a single-factor structure. Construct validity of the instrument was supported by significant correlations between school psychologists' consultation self-efficacy ratings and perceptions of their ability to respond to hypothetical consultation referral problems (r = .69, p < .01), and regression analysis found that years of experience and time spent consulting with teachers predicted psychologists' self-efficacy scores.

IDENTIFYING AND CULTIVATING LEADERSHIP POTENTIAL IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Though National Association of School Psychologists standards acknowledge the urgent need for leadership skills among school psychologists and loosely define a leadership agenda, a cogent model for the training and practice of this skill set has not yet been explicated. The formulation of a preliminary conceptual framework is a particularly pressing agenda for school psychology practitioners and academicians who, in response to the call for increased accountability in general and special education, must shift curricula from a traditional diagnostic/consultative/intervention framework to include topics related to organizational effectiveness. The objective of this article is to identify key behaviors, skills, dispositions, and contextual variables that will facilitate successful leadership among practicing school psychologists and then to propose considerations for specialist‐level training in school psychology.

Instructional and behavior management practices implemented by elementary general education teachers

This investigation examined 317 general education kindergarten through fifth-grade teachers' use of instructional and behavioral management strategies as measured by the Classroom Strategy Scale (CSS)-Observer Form, a multidimensional tool for assessing classroom practices. The CSS generates frequency of strategy use and discrepancy scores reflecting the difference between recommended and actual frequencies of strategy use. Hierarchical linear models (HLMs) suggested that teachers' grade-level assignment was related to their frequency of using instructional and behavioral management strategies: Lower grade teachers utilized more clear 1 to 2 step commands, praise statements, and behavioral corrective feedback strategies than upper grade teachers, whereas upper grade teachers utilized more academic monitoring and feedback strategies, content/concept summaries, student focused learning and engagement, and student thinking strategies than lower grade teachers. Except for the use of praise statements, teachers' usage of instructional and behavioral management strategies was not found to be related to years of teaching experience or to the interaction of years of teaching experience and grade-level assignment. HLMs suggested that teachers' grade level was related to their discrepancy scores of some instructional and behavioral management strategies: Upper grade teachers had higher discrepancy scores in academic performance feedback, behavioral feedback, and praise than lower grade teachers. Teachers' discrepancy scores of instructional and behavioral management strategies were not found to be related to years of teaching experience or to the interaction of years of teaching experience and grade-level assignment. Implications of results for school psychology practice are outlined.

Associations between school-related factors and depressive symptoms among children: A comparative study, Finland and Norway

This study compares school-related associations in depressive symptoms among children aged between 9–13 years from four schools in Finland and Norway. A total of 523 pupils participated in the cross-sectional survey. The connections between depressive symptoms and school factors were analysed using hierarchical regression analyses. School variables were self-perceived peer victimization, teacher and peer social support, school performance, and teachers’ reports on competence in core subjects; these variables explain 30% of the variance of the children’s depressive symptoms in Norway and 26% in Finland beyond that afforded by differences in the background characteristics and protective factors in the family. A trend was found in the Norwegian data which showed that poor relationships at school are connected more strongly with depressive symptoms than poor school performance, but the Finnish data did not confirm this. The results support the importance of taking various school factors into account with children suffering depressive symptoms, and not merely a dysfunctional domestic situation. The implications for school psychology practice are also discussed.

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN WRITTEN EXPRESSION CURRICULUM‐BASED MEASUREMENT IN THIRD‐ THROUGH EIGHTH‐GRADE STUDENTS

Many studies have found gender differences in certain areas of academic achievement, such as reading and math. Fewer studies have examined gender disparities in writing skills. The current study explored gender differences in written expression performance. Participants were 1,240 male and female students in third through eighth grade, representing five schools in a rural southeastern school district. Each student was administered an AIMSweb curriculum‐based measurement writing probe during the district's regularly scheduled fall, winter, and spring benchmarks. All measures were scored for total words written and correct writing sequences. Two‐way repeated measures analyses of variance were used to determine whether differences existed in the sample. A significant female advantage was found on both scoring indices at each grade level. These findings have strong instructional and theoretical implications for practicing school psychologists and other educators.