Philosophical Tradition Research Articles

Leo Strausso sugrįžimas prie užmiršto rašymo meno

The aim of this article is to reconstruct Leo Strauss’ project of a return to the forgotten art of writing and to demonstrate its relation to his attempts to find alternatives to historicist positions. By emphasizing the insoluble conflict between the political community and philosophical life medieval philosophers opened up the possibility of a novel understanding of the premodern philosophical tradition. This new perspective is based on the assumption that philosophers of the past attempted to avoid persecution and wanted to protect their societies from the potentially destructive effects of philosophical radicalism, which is why the presentation of their doctrines was formed by the distinction between esoteric and exoteric doctrines. The forgetfulness of the technique of careful writing began with the implementation of liberal political principles and was furthered by the triumph of historicist assumptions. Strauss’ return to classical political philosophy is inseparable from his polemics with historicist positions that negate the fundamental assumptions of this tradition. By emphasizing the distinction between esoteric and exoteric elements of philosophical texts Strauss introduces a technique of interpretation which is based on attempts to distinguish between elements that have a transhistorical meaning and are found in the esoteric doctrine, from the exoteric teaching, which has always been accommodated to the dogmas and prejudices of concrete society. The attempt to reconstruct the transhistorical elements of doctrines is inseparable from the goal of returning to the natural consciousness that is to be found in the tradition of ancient political philosophy.

TABURAR: UNDERSTANDING MODERATION THROUGH HOUSE DOORS IN THE UGAR VILLAGE

This study aims to reveal the moderation practices carried out by the people of Ugar village, Kokas district, Fakfak Regency, West Papua Province, through their house doors (Taburar). It departs from the assumption that there are functions and roles on the house door as a picture of mutual trust in which the community holds fast to the village philosophy as a basis for values and norms used to regulate family and community life. This traditional philosophy has enabled the Ugar community to survive and adapt to new understandings that enter their village. Qualitative research method with observation and interview techniques related to cultural phenomena and community activities. Several references were used to enrich the data. This paper found that every house in the Ugar community has many doors with their respective characters. Each character has a philosophy and value that leads to the formation of moderation. The internalization of this traditional value allows the strengthening of religious moderation and respect for other identities to occur.

Н.М. Карамзин как первооткрыватель личности

The objective of the article is to show a great significance of N.M. Karamzin as a pioneer in the field of personality. Using methods of comparative analysis, the author points out that in the 17th century European philosophy attempted to express the idea of man’s high measure but there were no exact word to designate this idea. How can we judge that a particular individual, presenting himself as different persons, passing through a series of all possible transformations, still remains himself? What can guarantee to us that it is the same individual? How is the personal innermost kernel bound? If each individual becomes mature, acquires social roles, changes his views throughout his life time, then every attempt to correct identity seems impossible. The English philosopher J. Locke carefully thought out many variants of this mystery. But he did not find, in our view, an answer to the question what it is that permits an individual to ensure his integrity as a unique human being. Nevertheless, his merit is in advancing the word «personality». In Russian philosophy and literature there was no analogue. It was N.M. Karamzin who introduced his analogue of this phenomenon. But he coined it using a Russian word «lik (face, image)». Therefore, an individual who expresses a particular fullness of his existence was called «lichnost’». Many authors introduced new words into the Russian language. N.M. Karamzin’s significance was that he created a philosophical tradition. It might be called personalistic. It is related to philosophical comprehension of such a phenomenon as «lichnost’» (personality). The article shows how Russian philosophers, having received the appropriate word at their disposal, tried to define also the signs that correlate with personality. Karamzin’s new word needed assimilation, it required facetting and conceptual content.

От диалога к полилогу (Рец. на: Сравнительная философия: от сравнительной к межкультурной философии / сост. и отв. ред. М.Т. Степанянц. М.: Наука; Вост. лит., 2022. 399 с.)

The article presents a review of the book “Comparative Philosophy: from comparative to intercultural philosophy”, published in the series “Comparative Philosophy”. The thesis about the value of intercultural philosophy in the context of conceptology is presented. The hypothesis formulated states that intercultural philosophy expands the methodological and theoretical framework of philosophical research and can be evaluated as a frontier phenomenon. It is noted that the main thesis of intercultural philosophy consists in the rejection of West-centrism, in the criticism of the traditional historical and philosophical narrative. It is proposed to consider intercultural philsophy as an alternative to West-centrism, as it rejects the monologism inherent in western philosophy and insists on the polylogicity of philosophy. Intercultural philosophy insists on the rootedness of thinking in culture. He believes that intellectual influences and conceptual borrowings are a natural, normal situation in philosophy. However, borrowing can lead both to the fruitful development of the philosophical tradition, and to the loss of the integrity of culture, a decrease in its creative potential, and the ability to reproduce. Intercultural philosophy is aimed at explication of positive forms of intercultural interaction. It suggests a new model of the historical and philosophical process, the main method of which is a polylogue, although the followers of intercultural philosophy are still debating whether intercultural philosophy is a new direction or a new methodology. Russian philosophy can also be revised and reinterpreted. N.Y. Danilevsky, V.S. Solovyov, Slavophiles, etc. can be considered intercultural thinkers. The methodological basis of the study was the comparative and hermeneutic methods.

Origins of the cosmopolitan approach in philosophy

In the modern globalized world with an increasingly intense contact between cultures and nations, there is a need to develop new philosophical concepts that can unite and overcome differences between people of different cultures and nationalities. One such concept is the cosmopolitan approach, based on the idea of global citizenship and the unity of all people. The origins of the cosmopolitan approach can be found in the evolution of philosophy over the centuries. In different national and cultural traditions, ideas about the unity and interconnection of all living in the world were manifested. This article analyzes the ancient and enlightenment origins of the cosmopolitan approach in philosophy, their comparison, as well as the prospects for the cosmopolitan approach in modern philosophy. Various philosophical traditions are examined, their influence on the formation of cosmopolitan thought, as well as their relevance in the modern globalized world. Particular attention is paid to the ideological milestones in the development of the cosmopolitan approach and its role in overcoming differences between cultures and nations. It is noted that cosmopolitanism, both in Ancient Greece and during the Enlightenment, was an important philosophical and cultural movement that laid the foundations for thinking about universal citizenship and the common purpose of humanity, about the importance of universal values and human rights. It is concluded that the influence of ancient and Enlightenment cosmopolitanism on the cosmopolitanism of the 21st century is manifested in the general idea of the unity of the universe and universal moral principles, in the development of global consciousness, emphasis on reason and cooperation.

FORMATION OF THE ART DECORATION OF THE DUNGHUAN CAVES UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL FACTORS

The influence of external factors on the formation of the figurative concept of Dunhuang wall paintings is analyzed. The purpose of the article is to highlight the processes of forming the artistic decoration of Dunhuang caves under the influence of external factors.
 The relevance of the research topic is due to the need to draw the attention of world scientists to the problem of research and preservation of the Dunhuang complex, since some of the frescoes are in a state of emergency and the exchange of experience of restorers from different countries is necessary for their preservation.
 The tasks of the study were to determine the role and significance of external factors in the activation or decline of the Dunhuang complex, and based on this to argue the dependence of the figurative concept of Dunhuang wall paintings on external factors (political, ideological, economic, social, natural and climatic).
 It is proved that the appearance of the Dunhuang Buddhist cave temple complex and the processes related to its construction were largely determined by external factors: at first, the commitment of the rulers of China to the new religion of Buddhism contributed to the activation of the process of creating new sanctuaries, and later under the influence of local philosophical and religious traditions as well as cultural and artistic preferences, there is a transformation of Buddhist fresco traditions borrowed from India, which acquires a local color in the conditions of China. It should be noted that while preserving the general canonicality of wall painting in the process of developing artistic skills, it acquires greater realism and the means of artistic expression are diversified with portraits of benefactors, scenes from their lives and landscape compositions.

«Сумма мудрости» Фэн Мэнлуна как источник исследования китайской стратагемной мысли

Studies of Chinese stratagem thinking in Russia still do not take into account works created in line with the Confucian philosophical tradition. “A Complete Book of Wisdom” by Feng Menglong (1574–1646) can be regarded as a collection of stratagems. The grounds for this assessment may be found in traditional bibliographic descriptions and the modern research and publishing tradition. The fi rst edition was published in 1626, the supplemented edition – in 1634. Formally, “A Complete Book of Wisdom” can be referred to encyclopediasleishu. The text is not a continuous narrative, but consists of individual short stories; the number depends on the edition, from 1061 to 1236. Each story describes a precedent for the application of a stratagem. The period of the narration covers years from ancient times to the Ming Dynasty. Feng Menglong selected proper stories, edited them, and added his own comments. Typologically, similar stories are organized into separate sections (28 in total), which, in turn, are organized into chapters (10 in total). One chapter contains from two to four sections. “A Complete Book of Wisdom” retains the features of the “A New Account of Tales of the World” by Liu Yiqing (403–444), which are characterized by a value classifi cation of people’s deeds. All the stories are arranged according to the principle of “from the best to the worst”. Feng Menglong wrote a large preface to the entire work, and provided extended prefaces to each chapter. Each section is preceded by a brief explanation. Feng Manlong’s own ideological views can be discovered as the paratextual elements: prefaces and commentaries. The article consists of two parts. The fi rst part is devoted to the description of the peculiarities of the narrative language of “A Complete Book of Wisdom”, as well as the analysis of the socio-philosophical issues that stimulated the creation of this work. On the basis of quotation from classics in Feng Menglong’s works two types of author’s meaning formation are revealed. The author of the paper shows transformation of ethical models of Sung neo-Confucianism and the changing status of the category ‘wisdom’ in Feng Menglong’s ideological program. The second part of the article offers the author’s commented translation of Feng Menglong’s general preface to “A Complete Book of Wisdom” and ten prefaces to each chapter.

Mini-review: Biological Movements as Objects of Natural Science

BACKGROUND: Two approaches to biological movement have dominated the field, the computational approach (internal models) and the approach based on laws of nature pioneered by several researchers including Michael Turvey. AIM AND METHOD: We review a body of literature exploring and expanding the approach based on laws of nature. We show, in particular, how this approach fits the philosophical traditions of Merleau-Ponty, the theory of control with spatial referent coordinates, the principle of abundance, and the concept of performance-stabilizing synergies using the uncontrolled manifold hypothesis. RESULTS: Currently, this scheme of motor control has been applied successfully in studies of a variety of effectors, from single motor units to the whole body, a variety of tasks, and various populations. It led to the discovery of new phenomena and new interpretations of known phenomena. It has been productive in studies of neurological patients offering new understanding of some of the common pathologies (e.g., spasticity) and new tools for early diagnosis of various subcortical disorders and monitoring treatment effects. CONCLUSION: Currently, this field faces a number of challenges including the following: Mapping steps in the hierarchical control scheme on neurophysiological structures and circuits, understanding the relative role of intra-muscle (spinal) and multi-effector (supraspinal) synergies, expanding studies of movements in intact animals and animal preparation, and moving beyond the current scheme to fields traditionally associated with psychology. Just like the current scheme represents moving “outside the box” of classical mechanics, a step outside the current thinking is needed.

Polish Philosophy of the XX – early XXI Centuries through the Eyes of the Russian

Introduction. In the modern world we can note an increasing interest in problems and thinkers who have not been included in the classical history of philosophy for a long time. In the Russian tradition, Polish philosophical thought was considered within the narrow framework of the ideas of N. Copernicus, the revolutionary democrats, representatives of the Lviv-Warsaw schools. As a result, the impression was formed that in the 20th century Polish thought did not generate anything significant and interesting. In this work, the author made an attempt to rethink the attitude of Russian people to Polish thinkers of the 20th century to highlight the figures of those who can be perceived as spiritually close to the Russian understanding of philosophical issues. Philosophical novels and novellas have always existed in Russian culture. Russian thinkers sought to act as an artist of the word, which is not limited by academic frameworks.Methodology and sources. As in any historical and philosophical work, the historicalcomparative approach was used in this article. To implement the tasks set, the analysis of the works of Polish thinkers of the twentieth century L. Kolakovsky, J. Bohensky and S. Lem, who were the sources of this work, was carried out.Results and discussion. In Russian culture, philosophy (love of wisdom) has never been limited only to the framework of academic traditions. It is impossible to put thought in the “Procrustean bed” of clear rules and schemes, especially philosophical thought, therefore the author includes in the circle of study Polish thinkers who in their work sought to work outside the boundaries and established frameworks. L. Kolakovsky, J. Bohensky and S. Lem represent an unusual vision of familiar concepts. They demonstrate in their works that the "buffoonish" view can be present in the philosophical tradition, that an aphorism is the quintessence of thought. In the works of L. Kolakovsky, J. Bohensky and S. Lem, one can see a world of paradoxical worldview, a world of laughter at “unshakable” principles, a world that makes one wonder. And it is with surprise, according to Aristotle, that philosophy begins.Conclusion. Grotesque, oxymoron, paradox in the works of L. Kolakovsky, J. Bohensky, S. Lem represent a form of philosophical understanding of modernity. The Polish thought of the twentieth century shows that philosophy can and should have many variants of its implementation.

ON ‟MONISTIC” POLITIC AND LEGAL IDEAS, KONSTANTIN LEONTIEV AND EURASIANISM THEORY OF THE STATE

The article analyses the often contradictory assessments available in modern Russian science of Eurasianism, as an association of Russian emigrants of the first wave who sought to create a post-revolutionary ideology of restoring the national state and law. The authors formulate objections to the statements of some researchers about the absence of the need for a state ideology for democratic societies and the danger of the embodiment of the Eurasian ideocracy in Russia. The article examines the connections of classical Eurasianism of the 1920s to 30s with the Russian philosophical tradition of the 19th century and concludes that the Eurasians, when creating their own political and legal doctrine, were not modernisers of the Slavophile heritage, rather relying on the ‟despotism of the idea” and the Byzantium of Konstantin Leontiev and not on pan-Slavism of Nikolay Danilevsky. Studying the classical texts of the Eurasianism movement, using the method of typology and the basic definition of ideocracy formulated by one of the creators of Eurasianism, Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy, the authors expand the theory of ideocratic statehood by introducing new concepts: 1) imitative; 2) latent and 3) manifesting ideocracies. The description of the mentioned types of ideocracies is based on the analysis of a number of legal documents important for understanding the content of the modern ideology of the United States striving for world domination.

Knowing Myself

In recent decades, critical thinking in higher education has garnered more attention, due the prevailing sense that it is essential for the development of critical citizens. However, critical thinking largely appears to be characterized as originating from a Global Northern philosophical tradition and embodying abilities that lead to academic success. Perpetuating this hegemony of regional knowledge as universal devalues knowledge traditions of the Global South and often leads to ‘othering’ of knowledges and ways of knowing rooted in their cultures and philosophies, delimits the scope of critical thinking and makes it challenging for the subject to resonate with its learners. This research examines the critical thinking curriculum in British transnational higher education in Ghana, critically interrogating the student learning experience and the wider issue of cultural imperialism enacted by the Global North through transnational higher education, and offers some suggestions derived from participant interviews to reimagine the curriculum.

Editorial

Albeit often overlapping, sin and vice are two related yet clearly distinguished concepts. It would require an extremely long detour to sketch the history of such thick, central notions in Western culture, as well as their similarities, differences, and overlappings. Sin is a polysemic notion. The word refers, primarily, to an action whereby an agent intentionally fails to live up to the will or commands of God (see Stump, 2018). However, sin can be also considered as a disposition of the will, i.e., an inclination to engage in sinful actions (Plantinga 2000). Finally, according to parts of the Christian tradition, sin is a metaphysical state, i.e., a condition of “uncleanness” which marks a fundamental ontological difference between human beings and God (M. Adams 1991, 20f). While according to the Christian thought vice can be a cause of sin, and a sinful disposition may closely resemble a vice, the two concepts shouldn’t be confused. First, while sin pertains to a theological vocabulary, talking of vices is perfectly compatible with a secular philosophical discourse, as the recent success of virtue ethics and virtue-vice epistemology testifies. This comes as no surprise, if one thinks that the very origin of the concept is rooted in the secular philosophical tradition tracing back to Plato and Aristotle. Secondly, within character-based moral and epistemic theories, a vice is, unequivocally, a trait of character. As such, it is part of an agent’s psychological makeup, which means that it is a stable feature of their moral psychology, independently of its specific behavioral manifestations. And while an action may well be vicious, it can be so only insofar as it springs from a vicious trait, which has—so to speak—ontogenetic, conceptual, and even normative priority over the actions it elicits.

The Use of Aristotle’s Philosophy in Anthony Radyvylovsky’s Sermons

In this paper, at the example of Anthony Radyvylovskyi creation, we examine the impact of Aristotle’s works on the philosophical component of Ukrainian church sermons from the Baroque period. The culturological approach and methods of hermeneutics and comparative analysis were used in the research. The source base of this article was the texts of the Ukrainian preacher Anthony Radyvylovsky, who worked in the Baroque era. Separate texts of Aristotle were used for comparative analysis. The objective of this study is to investigate the usage specialties of the Aristotle’s texts by Anthony Radyvylovskyi in his own writing. The result should help to better understand the ideological influence of ancient philosophy on the formation of national philosophical tradition of the Baroque epoch. The ideological content of borrowed from Aristotle’s texts and mechanisms are traced to the use by the preacher. The list of Aristotle’s texts from which Radyvylovskyi quoted is provided. It is also shown that Radyvylovskyi uses the authority of Aristotle during moral teachings and philosophical thinking about the characteristics of human nature. The conclusion about the creative way of using the Aristotle’s ideas by Anthony Radyvylovskyi is given and significant philosophical component in the preacher’s written legacy is noted.

God as the Condition of Speech: An Interpretation of Eugen Rosenstock‐Huessy's and Franz Rosenzweig's New Thinking

AbstractThe article offers an interpretation of the New Thinking of Rosenstock‐Huessy and Rosenzweig. It first explains the New Thinking in juxtaposition with a philosophical tradition that views reality as a problem of knowledge and conceptualizes the I's relation to reality as accomplished primarily through thought. The New Thinking is defined by its effort to understand the human being's relation to reality as constitutively shaped by speech, and speech not as means of knowing or representing things but as means of establishing relations among speakers. The article then reconstructs an argument central to the New Thinking that begins with the analysis of the structure of speech in order to discover the relations between the human being, the world, and God that are the conditions without which speech would not accomplish what it always already accomplishes, namely, to establish relations among speakers. The idea that emerges from this analysis is that prior to, and presupposed by, our capacity to know reality objectively, our very encounter with reality in speech and time is inescapably a response to God's address. For the New Thinking, God is not an object of knowledge or experience, but the perpetual address that is the condition of speech.

Практическая составляющая ранней греческой философии

Introduction. The relevance of «practical philosophy» is contrasted with «traditional philosophy», detached from life. The final perspective sees the harmonization of theoretical-practical and practical-theoretical activity of philosophers, based on the appropriate historical and logical rethinking of the history of philosophy. The classical beginning is to emphasize the practical component of early Greek philosophy. Theoretical analysis. The direct connection to life unites Thales as a sage with Thales as a philosopher (the widespread idea of the remoteness of Thales' philosophy from practice is criticized as being engaged by the dominant theoretical-practical paradigm of philosophy). The expert model of the practical component of Thales' philosophy generally characterizes the Milesian school and the Eleates. The absence of effective philosophical practice contributes to the skepticism of Xenophanes and the tragic nature of Heraclitus' work. Political activity of Pythagoreans is the objective maximum of the practical component of philosophy (political model of the practical component of philosophy). The problematic nature of philosophers' political activity, the growth and complication of theoretical research lead the ancient atomists towards the formation of a theoretical-practical model of philosophical activity. Conclusion. The problem of connection with life was positively solved in the work of Thales and was significant for all early Greek philosophy. This should be taken into account in the further study of the history of philosophy; the latter is in essence the school of thought that contributes to the harmonization of theoretical and practical activities of modern philosophy.

НИГИЛИЗМ КАК ФЕНОМЕН В ЗАПАДНОЕВРОПЕЙСКОЙ ФИЛОСОФСКО-АНТРОПОЛОГИЧЕСКОЙ ТРАДИЦИИ

Статья посвящена рассмотрению эволюции феномена нигилизма в западноевропейской философско-антропологической мысли. В ней отмечается неоднозначный характер протекания и становления нового неклассического дискурса в философии ХХ века, его влияние на формирование современных философских течений современности, который был закономерным явлением на фоне мировоззренческого «голода» в Европе, некоего духовного тупика. Несмотря на то, что нигилизм ярко проявляется лишь со второй половины XIX века, в современной Европе ныне вновь наблюдаются признаки упадка духовных ценностей, поиск новой формулы развития европейского общества на фоне кризиса процессов глобализации во всём мире.Кроме того, в статье также косвенно затрагивается вопрос рецепции культур-философских идей Востока, без которого нигилизм как философское учение невозможен. Отмечается, что современная эпоха с её трагическими метаморфозами проистекает из-за усугубления философско-антропологических проблем современности, ведущих к проявлению нигилизма в её различных формах. Интерес к нигилизму обусловлен логикой и историей развития человека, в особенности в XXI веке, когда происходит ломка международных отношений, основанных на понятиях права и морали; когда сами государства, порой сознательно, становятся на зыбкий путь государственного нигилизма со всеми вытекающими антигуманными и катастрофическими последствиями своих действий, обусловливая свою политику идеологемой о защите национальных интересов.Конечно, движение к нигилизму по-своему закономерно, ибо современность требует иных подходов и методологии решения, как назревших глобальных, так и локальных проблем. Кроме того, в нигилизме отражается диалектика бытия, становление нового и изменение старого, и как любой процесс трансформации он болезнен и порой катастрофичен. Поэтому современная система мироустройства нуждается в переосмыслении и поиске новой гуманистической парадигмы, культурном и философском сближении и взаимодействии.Таким образом, вполне оправданно можно утверждать о существовании правового, морального, политического, метафизического, онтологического, методологического, психологического, мереологического аспектов нигилизма, которые берут своё начало от философских и собственно аксиологических оснований субъекта. Тем не менее, статья не преследует цель раскрыть это многогранное понятие в его различных вариациях, ввиду сложности осмысления нигилизма в контексте исторических, экономических, политических, экономических, социальных, культурных и иных основаниях бытия, хотя и указывает на наличие таковой связи.

An Analysis of Aristotle’s Principles in Al-Farabi’s Study of Logic in the History and Philosophy of Science

The era in which Abū Naṣr al-Fārābī emerged as a canonical scientist significantly contributed to his education and shaped his scientific worldview. The formation of al-Farabi’s spiritual worldview and his ideas is directly associated with embracing the ancient philosophical tradition, more precisely, Aristotle’s philosophy and logic. The focus of the article is alFarabi’s analysis of Aristotle’s principles in the study of logic and their further development. Al-Farabi’s worldwide reputation as the Second Teacher after Aristotle, the First Teacher, in the East is directly rooted in his mastery and advancement of the science of logic. In simple terms, the philosopher states that logic leads a person to a straight path to being capable of radically discerning between good and bad, truth and lies, and honesty and deceit. This, in turn, steers humanity away from succumbing to mistakes or getting into trouble. Al-Farabi constructs a comprehensive scientific analysis of the socio-cultural foundations of Aristotle’s doctrine of logic and the ability to adapt it in his unique way to society. The study of the theoretical basis of al-Farabi’s teachings on logic and its significance involves employing hermeneutic, comparative, and stylistic methods in the research of the texts.

Balancing the Poles of the Seesaw: The Parallel Paths of Eckhart and Hindu Vedānta toward Oneness with God/Brahman

The ultimate aim of both Eckhart’s philosophy and Vedānta philosophy is to attain oneness with God/Brahman. Nevertheless, their different philosophical starting points and the conflict between the sublime ideal of the theory and reality means that their philosophies present a structural symmetry. They both have to face two dilemmas: “How can we claim that humans are already one with God?” and “Why is it that humans are not already one with God?”. Eckhart’s inherited tradition emphasizes the distinction between humans and God, while the Vedānta philosophical tradition emphasizes that “I am Brahman”. Each of them starts from one pole of the seesaw of the dilemma and encounters the other’s issue at the other pole. Eventually, they converge at the point of balance, with unity with God/Brahman realized in all human activities. Here, this worldly life becomes significant, all human work expresses the Divinity, and the importance of God is replaced by an impersonal Divinity that combines being and nothingness.

Event I. The development of oriental medicine in Russia in the XVIII-XIX centuries. The role of scientists of the Imperial Medico-Surgical (Military Medical) Academy

The article presents the history of nascence traditional oriental medicine in Russia during XVIII–XIX centuries. The first information about oriental medicine was brought to Russia in the XVIII century by doctors, who visited Mongolia and China as members of embassy expeditions. The first decades of the XVIII century can be considered as beginning of a systematic study oriental treatment methods. It was possible thanks to the many years efforts of the employees of the Russian ecclesiastical mission in Beijing. This organization from 1715 to 1864 years served religious, diplomatic and scientific functions. An invaluable contribution to the study of Chinese medicine was made by the leaders of the mission. Major role belongs to Nikita Yakovlevich Bichurin (father Iakinf), archimandrite of the IX mission. He was fluent in Chinese, studied the primary sources of medical literature, translated significant treatises into Russian, and taught Chinese to the mission staff. The head of the X mission, Pavel Ivanovich Kamensky, compiled a Chinese-Russian medical dictionary, reorganized the mission, and insisted on the need to introduce the position of a doctor among the staff. Starting from 1821, doctors O.P. Voitsekhovsky, P.E. Kirillov, A.A. Tatarinov, S.I. Bazilevsky and P.A. Kornievsky, graduates of the Imperial Medical and Surgical (Military Medical) Academy worked as physician of the X–XIV missions. Doctors continued to study the theoretical concepts of Chinese medicine, philosophical and cultural traditions that underlie healthcare. In addition to medical work, in accordance with the instructions of the Medical Council at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, they explored epidemiology, healthcare organization and the process of training doctors in China, analyzed Eastern approaches in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases, pharmacopoeia, used of herbal remedies, methods of prevention and health maintenance. The scientific approach, knowledge of the Chinese language, and a long stay in the country allowed them to lay the foundations of Oriental medicine in Russian, acquaint medical community with the methods of treatment and prevention of diseases adopted in China, introduce acupuncture, moxa, the use of new types of herbal remedies, enrich the collections of medicinal plants.

The Fourfold Environmental Protection Initiative of Dharma Drum Mountain

This article explores the unique environmental ethos advocated by Dharma Drum Mountain (DDM), an international Buddhist spiritual, cultural, and education foundation founded by the late Chan Master Sheng Yen. It presents a critical reflection on orthodox models of Western environmental ethics and illuminates the constraints of mainstream critical approaches when confronted with the intricate ecological philosophies embedded in Buddhist traditions. Central to the DDM’s model is the profound interweaving of spiritual cultivation with environmental consciousness, a stance that fosters a multidimensional dialogue that engages various ecological narratives. This approach not only resonates with aspects of Western environmental thought but is also firmly grounded in a distinct philosophical tradition that emphasizes spiritual growth as integral to genuine ecological engagement. In this article, it is argued that DDM’s holistic initiatives necessitate an expanded, diversified environmental discourse that accommodates a spectrum of cultural and philosophical insights. Consequently, this examination serves a dual purpose: it provides an insight into DDM’s environmental philosophy, and it can stimulate a paradigm shift while urging consideration beyond conventional boundaries and advocating for a spiritually inclusive approach to environmental awareness and preservation.