Names Of Professions Research Articles

FEMINISATION OF NAMES OF PROFESSIONS, FUNCTIONS, DEGREES OR TITLES IN THE FRENCH PRESS

Feminisation of names of professions is a set of linguistic processes consisting of explicating women’s presence on the public stage. In this study, we refer to feminisation of terminology or creation of terms denoting feminine professions, titles, degrees and functions, without taking into account texts’ feminisation. In French, female human beings are designated by feminine grammar pronouns, leading to male-female opposition representation with respect to the division of the sexes. For the feminisation defenders, this representation has considerable social consequences. In French, the masculine gender can be used as generic gender ( un professeur may nominate a man or a woman) and it is the gender of a group composed of individuals of both sexes. However, this use was perceived by feminisation upholders as concealing the role of women in public life, and it may even cause psychological strength to stand in certain positions. Therefore, the discussion on the gender of the words denoting status or professional activities of human beings is not only a formal grammar issue, but a matter of sociolinguistics, closely linked to the image that society makes on the relationship between genders and it may even influence these relationships. In the French current use, it appears that certain feminine professions nouns are used when the job is occupied by a woman, while at some point in the past, when it was not accepted as a woman to occupy that post, the same feminine form was denoting the wife of the man occupying the post. But French Academy considers that feminisation can introduce an imbalance in the language structures and cause confusion in formulating simple sentences. Although nouns such as professeure, recteure, sapeuse-pompière, auteure, ingénieure, procureure are considered by the French Academy elected members as „barbarisms“, a number of nouns was introduced in the 8th issue of the Dictionary of the Academy: artisane, aviatrice, avocate, bûcheronne, compositrice, éditrice, exploratrice, factrice, pharmacienne, postière. In this article, based on a corpus of nouns in French written press in the period of September 2016, we will present the evolution of the feminisation of names of professions, highlighting areas in which nouns become easier used in their feminine form. We will examine the position of the press, knowing that the media has a great influence on language changes, while reflecting the mentality of the people.

Markedness of language signifiers as a gender sensitivity indicator

We are used to perceive the unmarked forms as primary and dominant ones due to their generality and bigger presence within a corpus. That is why we understand them as natural and neutral, while the marked forms are present within a concrete and specific meaning. The use of masculine gender as generic (unmarked) in names of professions is a realisation of dominant social attitudes during the past and of dominant values in a society. Social movements against the discrimination had the tendency of linguistic discrimination effacement as a direct result, especially in English. Related to that, the high number of neologism appears. They find their way to the broader public through the media, while the public is the one who choose whether to accept or reject them. Reasons for this can be intralingual and extra lingual. We can assume that the societies with higher level of socio-economic development will be more sensitive with regard to political correctness in language and that they willrecord a bigger number of specific, marked terms. Although the use of each of them can be accepted by broader public, their use do not necessarily have to be registered in dictionaries. We decided to analyse the corpus of 50 „common“ profession names to see whether the feminine genderforms used by public will be registered in dictionaries. The analysis has shown that Croatian recognises more specific forms for professions and functions in feminine gender in comparison to French in regard to their presence in dictionaries.

Gender of the names of professions

In the Russian language masculine names of professions and jobs are used when refered to females in formal style. There is a limited group of nouns that can form twin feminine names used in neutral style. Feminine names of professions and jobs with the help of the suffixes –ша, -ха, -лка, -чка are used in informal style and contain some shade of scorn. From the end of the twentieth century the research in gender linguistics has been developing rapidly dealing with the problems of the relations between gender and a language. Gender linguistics tries to explain why the masculine predominates in the professional terminology and makes an attempt to change the rule. Names of professions and jobs in the Russian language are formed with the help of suffixes as well as by adoption from other languages.

Pérdida y reemplazo de arabismos en español

Loss and Replacement of Arabisms in Spanish. Names of ProfessionsMost Spanish words of Arabic origin that designate professions have disappeared. However, some are still in use, amongst which albañil or alfarero are some of the most usual. Others have been replaced by Latinisms, such as veterinario, which replaced albéitar, or by derived (barbero) or compound nouns (ropavejero) that prevail over their counterparts alfajeme and aljabibe, respectively. There are also special cases when an Arabic word is replaced by a Romance loan word (alfayate vs. sastre) or even by another Arabic word (alcaller vs. alfarero). The aim of this paper is the study of the replacement of Arabisms starting from the Late Middle Ages with focus on names of professions.

Anthroponomastic of Parish of Bieliny in the Light of Parish Books of the Years 1850–1900

The aim of the present article is onomastic analysis of male surnames reported in the documents of the parish of St. Joseph Spouse of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Bieliny (built in 1637), derived from the second half of the 19th century. The analysis encompass five hundred sixty-four surnames. The classification of surnames was based on the division of surnames proposed by Stanislaw Rospond. He divided the surnames into derivative and non-derivative ones. The most productive group of derivative surnames was formed by the use of different suffixes. Among them, the most numerous are surnames with the suffix -ski, derived from place-names and first names. Among non-derivative surnames there prevail appellative surnames related with the names of professions, physical characteristics and personality, as well as surnames associated with nature, foods, abstractions, homemade production, substance and minerals, places and clothes. These names feature lexical differences.

SOCIOLINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF THE FEMINISATION OF NAMES OF PROFESSIONS IN THE CONTEMPORARY FRENCH LANGUAGE

The access of women in all fields of activity has provoked fierce linguistic polemics on feminisation of names of professions which has represented a wide range of linguistic investigations in France and in many French-speaking countries such as Canada, Belgium and Switzerland. This paper aims to examine the manifestation of the process of feminisation of names of professions in the French press, in other words, to observe how feminisation of names of professions in the French written media discourse is applied, knowing the fact that the press represents a favourable environment in which two areas conjugate, namely, society and linguistics. Therefore, this study is part of a sociolinguistic framework and will follow two approaches, one regulatory, related to linguistic habits and the other, innovative, revealed by the actual language-based practices that concern the visibility of women on the linguistic level. This micro research is justified by the assumption already advanced that the media has a very important role in the enrichment of languages, accompanying the evolution of the society by familiarizing the readers with new forms denoting new realities, thereby facilitating their further use. The objectives of this study are the study in the French press of the feminine forms used to designate women, comparing these forms to those indicated in the feminization guides and the Dictionary of the French Academy, which is the linguistic norm. The second part of the study is dedicated to analysing the procedures used to create the feminine form, in case of finding a lexical variation, but also explaining the factors favouring the option of using a form or another. Keywords : French, sociolinguistics, feminisation, names of profession.

Kilka uwag o nieodnotowanych w słownikach współczesnej polszczyzny formacjach feminatywnych

Słowa, słowa... Czy je znasz? edited by Teresa Smółkowa (Kraków 2013), despite the fact that it has been recorded the male equivalents (eg. lack of forms jajcara, siecioholiczka, zasiłkowiczka, although there are jajcarz, siecioholik, zasiłkowicz). The authors proved the presence of such potential female names in the National Corpus of Polish and on the Internet using Google search. Of the 263 units unrecorded in the lexicon until 218 are present – with varying attendance – in the tested texts. This means that these female names are present in the social use. They do not limit themselves to the female equivalent of male names of professions. They also include semantic categories such as sports and hobbies, and names: representatives of certain attitudes and beliefs, women with specific characteristics of mental (including addicted women) and physical (including sick women), Internet users (including online offenders). These names are the result of suffixal derivation, mainly using the suffix -ka, eg. erasmuska < erasmus, netoholiczka < netoholik (but also such as: -ini/-yni, -ica/-yca, -anka and -ara), and the paradigmatic derivation, eg. dredziara < dredziarz, sprawna inaczej < sprawny inaczej. Functioning described in the article female names in the social circuit is proof that in the past ten years there has been a significant change in the Polish language in the pragmatic aspects of the nomination of women.

Femme, je ne cesse pas d'écrire ton nom… À propos de la féminisation des noms de métiers, titres, grades et fonctions

Cet article traite du thème controversĂŠ de la fĂŠminisation linguistique du français. Se concentrant d'abord sur lien entre la langue et la sociĂŠtĂŠ, il rĂŠvise successivement les approches et les dĂŠmarches politiques en France et dans les rĂŠgions francophones de la Belgique, la Suisse et le Canada. Deuxièmement, il rĂŠsume les rĂŠsultats de diverses ĂŠtudes sur les effets de la fĂŠminisation afin d'ĂŠvaluer le progrès dans ce domaine. Une partie est consacrĂŠe à l'analyse lexicale rĂŠalisĂŠe dans un corpus web français.

Romanian Terms for Less Common Feminine Professions

For millennia, the woman has been marginalized by society, her place being near children and husband and less within the male-dominated world, the one of business, politics, and economy. The mentalities of the community, the traditions and the prejudices have led to laws restricting the right of women to work, in general, or to practice certain professions. Regarding the professions exercised by women throughout history, there is in the Romanian language a rich terminological material, which can prove, on one hand, a socio-economic reality - persistent discrimination against working women, and on the other hand, the lexical processes underlying the structure of the class of feminine names of professions. The knowledge of the contemporary Romanian society's spirituality, of the nation's aspirations, is emphasized by the states in which the “working woman” appears. Moreover, sociologists emphasize the fact that, in time, although the women's emancipation led to the broadening of the horizon as far as choosing a profession goes, there continues to exist a clear discrimination against women in the practice of some professions and, especially, the possibility of occupying leadership positions. Our paper, made based on an inventory of terms excerpted from various documents of the sixteenth century - until the nineteenth century, but also from texts of the current Romanian language, highlights the fact that feminine names of professions represent a heterogeneous lexical group, both in terms of form and terms of provenance.

Typy motywacyjne nazwisk poznaniaków i ich funkcjonowanie w wybranych rejestrach podatkowych z XVII i XVIII wieku

The paper examines the Poznan historical anthroponymy preserved in tax registers from the 17th and 18th century, collected in the Documents of the City of Poznan in the State Archives. The starting point in the description of the surnames is their interpretation based on cultural onomastics according to which the linguistic interpretation of surname forms is accompanied by the social and cultural context. The theses of the paper are based on the linguistic analysis of the onomastic material that has been used in the research process and which rendered it possible to distinguish three main motivational types of Poznan anthroponyms from the 17th and 18th century: surnames formed from appellatives (from old characterizing nicknames, from names of professions, posts and social functions) and surnames derived from proper names (from first names, local names, from ethnonyms). The model that appeared most frequently is an appellative-based surname formed from old nicknames. The second position in the Poznan anthroponymic system is occupied by a surname derived from the names of places. Also surnames formed from first names and appellatives followed this structural pattern due to the conviction of the social superiority of the adjectival model ending in -ski. The third group consists of surnames derived from first names whereas the anthroponyms formed from the ethnonyms and the heraldic names appear rather rarely. Despite the fact that the German language had a significant impact on the surnames of Poznan burghers, these surnames – as the examined anthroponymy shows – preserve, in the majority of cases, the Polish character. As a result of an accurate observation of the anthroponyms occurring in the period of over a hundred and fifty years it was possible to show how the selected motivational types functioned and changed in the examined municipal documents and what degree of stabilization they presented. The process of the formation of the anthroponymy of Poznan burghers shows, on the one hand, specific regional features, on the other hand however – especially with reference to originally Polish surnames – confirms the general regularities connected with the development of the Polish anthroponymy in the Middle Polish period.

O uwarunkowaniach procesu kształtowania się i stabilizacji rosyjskich nazwisk

The aim of this article is to point to the factors that started the process of family names formation in the Eastern Slavonic area. It also discusses extralinguistic reasons for fixing them as permanent surnames. The official usage of surnames by the representants of different social groups in Russia proceeded as they were receiving full civic rights. It was also connected with the development of administrative structure of the Russian State. The key factor conditioning the usage of family names by the representants of the future generations was the inheritance of grounds and other material goods within a family. It seems that two types of Russian surnames could evaluate spontaneously: 1. the family names of Russian aristocrats motivated by toponyms, and 2. the family names of craftsmen derived from names of professions and occuppations. The creation of the majority of Russian townspeople’s and peasants’ surnames was a concious and controlled process. However, it took into account the trends in forming patronymics and their tendency to become the family names.

Attitudes of University Students to Some Verbal Anti-Sexist Forms

After more than two decades of non-sexist linguistic policies in Spain, a survey was carried out to evaluate the positive or negative attitude of almost 500 students from two Madrid universities to the most controversial verbal forms advocated in Spanish non-sexist linguistic policies: 1) the use of @ (as in alumn@s [students]); 2) the use of dual gender (as in alumnos y alumnas [students- masc and students-fem]); 3) the use of feminine terms for some women’s professional titles and occupations (i.e. ingeniera [engineer-fem], bedela [caretaker-fem], arquitecta [architect-fem], médica [physician-fem], aparejadora [quantity surveyor-fem], gerenta [manager-fem], perita [ex- pert-fem], cancillera* [chancellor-fem]); 4) the use of non-sexed collective nouns (as in profeso- rado [teaching staff]). Our aims were to know to what degree these resources were accepted by highly-educated young people, whether differences exist between the attitudes of men and women with respect to these forms, and which of these uses was the best accepted and which the least. Various examples of these non-sexist uses were presented to university students, who were asked to make a pronouncement on the feeling which these gave them or whether they used them. Our study concluded that the @ symbol and collective nouns are widely accepted among the student community. The dual gender seems to be also accepted, although greater vacillation was seen and sometimes the levels of rejection or indifference are higher. Nevertheless, of the four uses studied, the one which appears to provoke the greatest hesitation, vacillation or even opposition is the use of the feminine for some names of professions. In general, the number of female students in favour of the four features studied exceeds the number of male students.

Czy polszczyznę mogą wzbogacić nowe typy struktur słowotwórczych?

Can Polish be enriched by new types of word-formative structures?
 The paper presents some considerations on the lexical development of Polish. It concentrates on the issues of word-formative enlargement of vocabulary. Against the background of analogy, compensation, and extra- and intralinguistic borrowing, it discusses the possible continuants of feminine names (adjectives and diminutives), and of masculine names of professions that were traditionally reserved for women (e.g. kosmetyczka ‘beautician’, niania ‘nanny’). The paper does not only identify the extralinguistic factors, such as the rise of new naming needs or the phenomenon of linguistic fashion (e.g. structures with the prefix para-), but it also investigates the processes of erosion of morphotactic constraints, and of customary limitations.

Angielskie nazwy zawodów w polskich serialach obyczajowych

This article discusses borrowings from English related to the theme aspect of profession names including those adapted in Polish and those typical of professional dialects and formerly not recorded in any lexicographic sources. The research material includes dialogues extracted from Polish serial dramas (referred to by the author as advance serial dramas).The excerpted borrowings from English are primarily oriented to business, media or advertising. This type of words can function in the Polish language because of the language’s nominal need. While many English words referring to professions are used chiefly in social dialects, more and more frequently they tend to be absorbed by general Polish.

Fryzjer czy fryzjerka? Rodzaj gramatyczny nazwy zawodu jako nośnik statusu społecznego

This article is a report of the results of qualitative research related to the influence of gender of a profession name on the social status of women who use this name. The subject is analyzed in two ways ? firstly quantitatively to show the connections between social status related to gender of professions names and different variables, and then qualitatively ? to show the character descriptions associated with women, who use profession names in different gender and types of attitudes observed between the respondents.

Pogranicze normy skodyfikowanej

The article analyses a few examples of innovations, widespread in spoken and written texts and largely accepted by average educated users of Polish language (especially, though not only, by the younger ones), but not yet fully and/or unanimously recognized as correct in normative dictionaries and critical works of normative linguists. The author focuses on two phonetical phenomena: denasalization of the vowel ą [o] at the end of a word, replaced by the diphthong [ou]; generalization of the accentuation of the last but one syllable in those words which were traditionally exceptions to the rule. Then two derivational models are looked into: feminine nouns derived with suffix -ka from masculine profession names en ding in -log (psycholog > psycholożka etc.); „statistical" nouns formed with the suffix -(aln)ość (oglądalność, słuchalność). More of the „almost standard" phenomena will be analysed in another article.

Przykład metodologii badań nad językiem jako nośnikiem statusu

This article presents an example of methodology that can be used to research the connection between language and social status. The methodology which is presented below was used in the research related to the influence of gender of a profession name on the social status of women who use this name. The article starts with a presentation of a theory, which was helpful in operationalization of the term ?social status?, then it shows the method that was used to collect the needed data and in the end, it describes the factors that influenced the choice of the profession names and the respondents.

DIRE ET SE DIRE AU FÉMININ

The decree of 21st of June 1993 sets out how to express the female gender in profession names and function titles in official and administrative publications of the Communaute francaise de Belgique. It has helped to change mindsets. The guide Mettre au feminin (“Express the female gender”) allows civil servants to fulfil the requirements of the decree and helps promote the usage of the female gender in the French language. First published in 1994, it has been reviewed and re-edited in 2005. Even if the visibility of women in language usage is on the increase, it faces not so much linguistic but ideological obstacles.

I nomi di mestiere nel sardo

In her paper, the author presents results of her examination on profession names in the Sardinian language. This corpus prepared by the author and organised in cards shows the etymological composition and word formation of the names of professions.

Associative recognition in a patient with selective hippocampal lesions and relatively normal item recognition.

Previous work (Mayes et al., Hippocampus 12:325-340, 2002) found that patient YR, who suffered a selective bilateral lesion to the hippocampus in 1986, showed relatively preserved verbal and visual item recognition memory in the face of clearly impaired verbal and visual recall. In this study, we found that YR's Yes/No as well as forced-choice recognition of both intra-item associations and associations between items of the same kind was as well preserved as her item recognition memory. In contrast, YR was clearly impaired, and more so than she was on the above kinds of recognition, at recognition of associations between different kinds of information. Thus, her recognition memory for associations between objects and their locations, words and their temporal positions, abstract visual items or words and their temporal order, animal pictures and names of professions, faces and voices, faces and spoken names, words and definitions, and pictures and sounds, was clearly impaired. Several of the different information associative recognition tests at which YR was impaired could be compared with related item or inter-item association recognition tests of similar difficulty that she performed relatively normally around the same time. It is suggested that YR's familiarity memory for items, intra-item associations, and associations between items of the same kind was mediated by her intact medial temporal lobe cortices and was preserved, whereas her hippocampally mediated recall/recollection of these kinds of information was impaired. It is also suggested that the components of associations between different kinds of information are represented in distinct neocortical regions and that initially they only converge for memory processing within the hippocampus. No familiarity memory may exist in normal subjects for such associations, and, if so, YR's often chance recognition occurred because of her severe recall/recollection deficit. Conflicting data and views are discussed, and the way in which recall as well as item and associative recognition need to be systematically explored in patients with apparently selective hippocampal lesions, in order to resolve existing conflicts, is outlined.