N-type Germanium Research Articles

Annealing of the Sb-vacancy and a closely related radiation induced defect in n-type germanium

Deep level transient spectroscopy was used to study the defects induced by alpha-particle irradiation from an Am241 source in antimony doped n-type germanium. Previous investigations of the well know Sb-vacancy defect have led to the discovery of a second defect with very similar emission properties, referred to as the E′. Although both defects have similar emission rates, they have very different annealing properties. In this study we further investigated these properties of the E′ in Sb doped samples irradiated at 270K with alpha particles from an Am241 source. Laplace deep level transient spectroscopy was used to determine the concentration of each defect. An isothermal annealing study of the E′ was carried out in the temperature range 300K to 325K in 5K increments, while the Sb-vacancy was annealed out completely at 410K onwards, long after the E′ was completely annealed out. The annealing activation energy was determined through isothermal annealing profiles for both the Sb-Vacancy and the E′ as 1.05eV and 0.73eV respectively with a prefactor of 2.05 × 109s−1 and 2.7 × 108s−1.

The impact of neutral impurity concentration on charge drift mobility in n-type germanium

The impact of neutral impurity scattering of electrons on the charge drift mobility in high purity n-type germanium crystals at 77 Kelvin is investigated. We calculated the contributions from ionized impurity scattering, lattice scattering, and neutral impurity scattering to the total charge drift mobility using theoretical models. The experimental data such as charge carrier concentration, mobility and resistivity are measured by Hall Effect system at 77 Kelvin. The neutral impurity concentration is derived from the Matthiessen's rule using the measured Hall mobility and ionized impurity concentration. The radial distribution of the neutral impurity concentration in the self-grown crystals is determined. Consequently, we demonstrated that neutral impurity scattering is a significant contribution to the charge drift mobility, which has a dependence on the concentration of neutral impurities in high purity n-type germanium crystal.

Properties of a previously unobserved donor-related electrically active defect in Ge induced by alpha particle irradiation

Alpha particle irradiation was used to study the radiation-induced defects in n-type germanium (Ge). Investigation of the well-known antimony (Sb)-vacancy complex (commonly known as the E-center) in Ge, with an activation energy of 0.37eV (E0.37), has led to the discovery of another defect with a DLTS signature virtually indistinguishable from the E-center, but with different annealing characteristics. We shall refer to this new defect as the E-prime. Although the two defects are easily distinguishable by annealing, the DLTS signal produced by the E-center and E-prime were not distinguishable through conventional deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS). Separation of the two peaks was only possible through the use of low noise equipment in conjunction with high resolution Laplace-DLTS. The activation energy of the Sb-vacancy and the E-prime was determined to be 0.370±0.005eV and 0.375±0.005eV. Depth profiles showed uniform distributions of both defects below the Schottky junction.

Methodology for determination of correction factors in direct gamma spectrometric measurement of radionuclides in sediments

In this study, the practical methodologies are described for the determination of the factors for the self-absorption effect (Fs), spectral interferences (Fcsi), and true coincidence summing effects (Fcoi), which are used in direct gamma-spectrometric measurement of radionuclides such as 210Pb, 238U, 234Th, 226Ra, 214Pb, 228Ac, 208Tl, 214Bi, 137Cs and 40K in samples. To validate the applied methods, certified reference materials (CRMs) of lake and stream sediments were measured with an n-type Germanium (Ge) detector-calibrated using a multinuclide reference source. The highest self-absorption correction factors ranged from Fs = 1.44–2.10 for 46.5keV peak (210Pb) and Fs = 1.25–1.60 for 63.3keV peak (234Th) lying in the low energy region of the spectrum. The systematic influence was observed for 186.2keV (226Ra) peak due to spectral interferences with the 235U contribution. For this peak, Fcsi is changed from 0.921 to 0.955. Additionally, the present study suggests that true coincidence summing (TCS) effects are not dominant, except for 208Tl and 214Bi for which Fcoi ranged from 1.179 to 1.192 an ranged from 1.140 to 1.151, respectively.

Spin–Charge Conversion Phenomena in Germanium

The spin–orbit coupling relating the electron spin and momentum allows for spin generation, detection and manipulation. It thus fulfils the three basic functions of the spin field-effect-transistor made of semiconductors. In this paper, we review our recent results on spin–charge conversion in bulk germanium and at the Ge(111) surface. We used the spin pumping technique to generate pure spin currents to be injected into bulk germanium and at the Fe/Ge(111) interface. The mechanism for spin–charge conversion in bulk germanium is the spin Hall effect and we could experimentally determine the spin Hall angle θSHE, i.e., the spin–charge conversion efficiency, in heavily doped n-type and p-type germanium. We found very small values at room temperature: θSHE ≈ (1–2) × 10−3 in n-Ge and θSHE ≈ (6–7) × 10−4 in p-Ge. Moreover, we pointed out the essential role of spin dependent scattering on ionized impurities in the spin Hall effect mechanism. We concluded that the spin Hall effect in bulk germanium is too weak to...

Random Dopant Fluctuation-Induced Threshold Voltage Variation-Immune Ge FinFET With Metal–Interlayer–Semiconductor Source/Drain

The impact of process-induced random dopant fluctuation (RDF)-induced threshold voltage ( $V_{\mathrm{ th}}$ ) variation on the performance of 7-nm n-type germanium (Ge) FinFETs with and without a metal–interlayer–semiconductor (MIS) source/drain (S/D) structure is investigated using 3-D TCAD simulations. In order to reduce the RDF-induced $V_{\mathrm{ th}}$ variation, an MIS S/D structure with a heavily doped n-type zinc oxide (ZnO) interlayer is used in the S/D region of the Ge FinFET. Thus, without performance degradation, the Ge FinFET with an MIS S/D structure achieves approximately threefold reduction in the RDF-induced $V_{\mathrm{ th}}$ variation (versus without an MIS S/D structure). The impact of various fin parameters (i.e., fin height and fin width) on the RDF-induced $V_{\mathrm{ th}}$ variation is also investigated. It is noteworthy that variation is suppressed as the fin height (fin width) increases (decreases).

Tunability of the dielectric function of heavily doped germanium thin films for mid-infrared plasmonics

Heavily-doped semiconductor films are very promising for application in mid-infrared plasmonic devices because the real part of their dielectric function is negative and broadly tunable in this wavelength range. In this work we investigate heavily n-type doped germanium epilayers grown on different substrates, in-situ doped in the $10^{17}$ to $10^{19}$ cm$^{-3}$ range, by infrared spectroscopy, first principle calculations, pump-probe spectroscopy and dc transport measurements to determine the relation between plasma edge and carrier density and to quantify mid-infrared plasmon losses. We demonstrate that the unscreened plasma frequency can be tuned in the 400 - 4800 cm$^{-1}$ range and that the average electron scattering rate, dominated by scattering with optical phonons and charged impurities, increases almost linearly with frequency. We also found weak dependence of losses and tunability on the crystal defect density, on the inactivated dopant density and on the temperature down to 10 K. In films where the plasma was optically activated by pumping in the near-infrared, we found weak but significant dependence of relaxation times on the static doping level of the film. Our results suggest that plasmon decay times in the several-picosecond range can be obtained in n-type germanium thin films grown on silicon substrates hence allowing for underdamped mid-infrared plasma oscillations at room temperature.

Thermal conductivity of n-type Ge monocrystals

The pyroelectric method is used to demonstrate the dependence of the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity coefficients of n-type germanium monocrystals on the concentration of antimony impurities (6 × 1013, 1.3 × 1014, 1.7 × 1014, 3.7 × 1014, 6 × 1014 cm−3). The investigated samples are cut from germanium crystals grown from a melt using the Czochralski method with crystallographic orientation [111].

Ultra-doped n-type germanium thin films for sensing in the mid-infrared.

A key milestone for the next generation of high-performance multifunctional microelectronic devices is the monolithic integration of high-mobility materials with Si technology. The use of Ge instead of Si as a basic material in nanoelectronics would need homogeneous p- and n-type doping with high carrier densities. Here we use ion implantation followed by rear side flash-lamp annealing (r-FLA) for the fabrication of heavily doped n-type Ge with high mobility. This approach, in contrast to conventional annealing procedures, leads to the full recrystallization of Ge films and high P activation. In this way single crystalline Ge thin films free of defects with maximum attained carrier concentrations of 2.20 ± 0.11 × 1020 cm−3 and carrier mobilities above 260 cm2/(V·s) were obtained. The obtained ultra-doped Ge films display a room-temperature plasma frequency above 1,850 cm−1, which enables to exploit the plasmonic properties of Ge for sensing in the mid-infrared spectral range.

Optical net gain measurement in n-type doped germanium waveguides under optical pumping for silicon monolithic laser.

Silicon (Si) monolithic lasers are key devices in large-scale, high-density photonic integrated circuits. Germanium (Ge) is promising as an active layer due to the complementary metal-oxide semiconductor process compatibility with Si. A net optical gain from Ge is essential to demonstrate lasing operation. We fabricated Ge waveguides and investigated the n-type doping effect on the net optical gain. The estimated net gain of the n-Ge waveguide increased from -2200 to -500/cm, namely reducing loss, under optically pumped condition.

Effects of metal/Ge contact and surface passivation on direct band gap light emission and detection for asymmetric metal/Ge/metal diodes

Direct band gap electroluminescence (EL) and light detection were studied at room temperature for n-type bulk germanium (Ge) by using fin-type asymmetric lateral metal/Ge/metal diodes. HfGe/Ge and PtGe/Ge contacts were used for injecting holes. Electron cyclotron resonance plasma oxidation and physical vapor deposition bilayer passivation (BLP) methods were employed for passivating the surface of the active region. A high EL intensity and a low dark current intensity were observed for the sample with PtGe/Ge contact and BLP, owing to the small/large barrier height of holes/electrons for PtGe/Ge contact, respectively, and the low density of interface states for the active region with BLP. The local-heating-induced redshift of the EL peak for the sample with PtGe/Ge contact is smaller than that for the sample with HfGe/Ge contact, owing to the lower parasitic resistance of PtGe/Ge contact. The diode with PtGe/Ge contact and BLP shows an on/off ratio of ∼104 and a responsivity of 0.70 A/W, corresponding to an external quantum efficiency of 56.0% under a wavelength of 1.55 µm.

Improving the ALD-grown Y2O3/Ge interface quality by surface and annealing treatments

Metal Oxide Semiconductor capacitors are investigated, employing ALD grown Y2O3 as gate dielectric, and n-type (100) germanium as channel substrate. The effect of post deposition annealing (PDA) in oxygen and forming gas atmosphere using a thin catalytically acting platinum (Pt)-layer on the Y2O3/Ge interface is electrically analyzed for buffered hydrofluoric (BHF) and thermally pre-treated Ge-surfaces.The Pt-assisted PDA ensures even for BHF pre-treated samples very low values for the interface trap density Dit of 1.55×1011eV−1cm−2 and low leakage current densities J of <7×10−9A/cm2 outperforming conventional PDA treatments. The interfacial formation of GeO2 and yttrium germanate after PDA is proven by using X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy measurements.

Influence of Schottky barrier on conductance of a metal-semiconductor atomic quantum point contact

We have studied the conductance of nanoscale junctions created at a metal-semiconductor interface by the break-junction technique. The conductance traces of the nanojunctions show steps related to the formation of successive metastable configurations of a few atoms. The plateau values in the conductance traces of nanojunctions formed between a nickel tip and a doped n-type germanium surface prove dependent on the polarity of the bias voltage applied to the nanojunction. The change in the conductance is due to the formation of a Schottky barrier within the nanojunction, as confirmed by the Schottky-diode-like nonlinear current-voltage characteristics determined for metastable configurations of atoms in the nanojunctions. Thus, we demonstrate the possibility of creating an ultra-small Schottky diode at an atomic quantum point contact.

Observation of Impact Ionization of Shallow States in Sub-Kelvin, High-Purity Germanium

We report on the observation of impact ionization processes involving shallow impurity states in a sub-Kelvin, high-purity n-type germanium detector similar to those used by direct detection dark matter experiments such as the Cryogenic Dark Matter Search. An optical fiber is used to generate packets of charge carriers near one surface of the detector. The charge carriers drift to the opposite surface by application of an electric field. The resulting drift current is measured by a high-speed charge amplifier. The onset of impact ionization for both electron and hole transport is clearly observed in the drift current as the applied electric field is increased above \(\approx \)5 V/cm. We present the effective charge collection efficiency and trapping length as a function of applied electric field for electrons and holes. We estimate the impact ionization cross section to be on the order of \(5\times 10^{-13}\,\mathrm {cm}^2\).

First Terahertz-range Experiments on Pump – Probe Setup at Novosibirsk free Electron Laser

A single-color pump-probe system has been commissioned at the Novosibirsk free electron laser. The laser emits a tunable monochromatic terahertz radiation. To prove the proper system operation, we investigated the time-resolved absorption of a sample of n-type germanium doped with antimony, which was previously investigated at the FELBE facility, in the temperature range from 5 to 40 K. The measured relaxation time amounted to about 1.7 ns, which agreed with the results obtained at the FELBE. The results of pump-probe measurements of non-equilibrium dynamics of hot electrons in the germanium crystal at cryogenic temperatures are presented for wavelengths of 105, 141 and 150 μm.

Application of the TSW method for analyzing thermal characteristics of germanium

The possibility of applying a pyroelectric method, namely, the thermal square wave method at single frequency, for analyzing thermal characteristics of bulk nonferroelectric materials has been demonstrated. Polycrystalline and n-type single-crystal germanium samples doped with antimony to 3.7 × 1014 cm–3 have been studied. The dependences of thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity on the crystallographic direction have been determined.

Point defect states in Sb-doped germanium

Defect states in n-type Sb-doped germanium were investigated by deep-level transient spectroscopy. Cobalt-60 gamma rays were used to generate isolated vacancies and interstitials which diffuse and react with impurities in the material to form four defect states (E37, E30, E22, and E21) in the upper half of the bandgap. Irradiations at 77 K and 300 K as well as isothermal anneals were performed to characterize the relationships between the four observable defects. E37 is assigned to the Sb donor-vacancy associate (E-center) and is the only vacancy containing defect giving an estimate of 2 × 1011 cm−3 Mrad−1 for the uncorrelated vacancy-interstitial pair introduction rate. The remaining three defect states are interstitial associates and transform among one another. Conversion ratios between E22, E21, and E30 indicate that E22 likely contains two interstitials.

Direct band gap light emission and detection at room temperature in bulk germanium diodes with HfGe/Ge/TiN structure

Direct band gap (DBG) electroluminescence (EL) and photo detection were studied at room temperature for n-type bulk germanium (Ge) diodes with a fin type lateral HfGe/Ge/TiN structure. DBG EL spectra peaked at 1.55μm were clearly observed due to small hole and electron barrier heights of HfGe/Ge and TiN/Ge contacts. DBG EL peak intensity increased with increasing doping level of Ge substrate due to increased electron population in direct conduction band. The integrated intensity of DBG EL spectrum is proportional to the area of active region, implying a good surface-uniformity of EL efficiency. Small dark current intensity was measured as 2.4×10−7A under a reverse bias voltage of −1V, corresponding to dark current densities of 5.3×10−10A/μm or 3.2×10−10A/μm2. At the wavelength of 1.55μm, a linear dependence of photo current intensity on laser power was observed with a responsivity of 0.44A/W at a reverse bias voltage of −1V.

Suppression of surface segregation of the phosphorous δ-doping layer by insertion of an ultra-thin silicon layer for ultra-shallow Ohmic contacts on n-type germanium

We demonstrate the formation of abrupt phosphorus (P) δ-doping profiles in germanium (Ge) by the insertion of ultra-thin silicon (Si) layers. The Si layers at the δ-doping region significantly suppress the surface segregation of P during the molecular beam epitaxial growth of Ge and high-concentration active P donors are confined within a few nm of the initial doping position. The current-voltage characteristics of the P δ-doped layers with Si insertion show excellent Ohmic behaviors with low enough resistivity for ultra-shallow Ohmic contacts on n-type Ge.

PGNAA system preliminary design and measurement of In-Hospital Neutron Irradiator for boron concentration measurement

A prompt gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA) system has been recently developed at the 30-kW research reactor In-Hospital Neutron Irradiator (IHNI) in Beijing. Neutrons from the specially designed thermal neutron beam were used. The thermal flux of this beam is 3.08×106cm−2s−1 at a full reactor power of 30kW. The PGNAA system consists of an n-type high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector of 40% efficiency, a digital spectrometer, and a shielding part. For both the detector shielding part and the neutron beam shielding part, the inner layer is composed of 6Li2CO3 powder and the outer layer lead. The boron-10 sensitivity of the PGNAA system is approximately 2.5cps/ppm. Two calibration curves were produced for the 1–10ppm and 10–50 ppm samples. The measurement results of the control samples were in accordance with the inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) results.