Mughal Empire Research Articles

Documentation and Conservation of Mughal Architectural Pattern - Bibi Maraim Mausoleum and Mosque Complex at Narayanganj, Dhaka in Bangladesh

All the historical structures of today's Narayanganj city have been eroded by terrible clutch. These structures include the magnificent structures of the Sultanate, Mughal and British Colonial periods. Among these structures, the ones that still survive against the adversities of nature and man-made factors inspire wonder in the minds of tourists and archaeologists. One such sight-seeing structure of the Mughal era is the complex, which includes Bibi Mariam's tomb and mosque. Complexity is a wrong idea. It is correct to say that Bibi Mariam's fort is impressive in both appearance and overall consideration. Bibi Mariam's tomb and mosque complex consists of several structures. The status of these establishments is neither greater nor lesser than that of the others. Recognized as Mughal structures, these structures stand with dignity. These structures have survived from age to age. Adequate intervention should be taken in that regard. Otherwise, the identity of this establishment, i.e., time, place, and time, cannot be presented to the new generation in the coming days.Due to the superstitious mentality of the local people, a lot of ornamentation is seen in tombs or mosques.Over time, these structures have been discussed or considered as ancient resources. A lot of decay is seen in the structures. Therefore, it is very important to know one thing for the restoration of these aesthetic structures, and that is to follow the right rules for conservation, compilation, and reconstruction. Bangladesh's historical structures, in particular, face threats and disasters as a result of an identity crisis and inappropriate reconstruction.Complex has the same situation. The building is currently in a state of disrepair. The establishment has lost much of its appeal. This article presents extensive documentation of Bibi Mariam's tomb and mosque complex. Apart from that, it sheds light on how this ancient structure can be brought to the public and preserved.

Rule’s & Vast Documentation and Conservation Techniques of Explicative in Ancient Mughal Water Fort “Subarnakandi Fort” to “Sonakanda Fort” (at presents): 1660AD-1663 AD

Water fort was originally a military establishment of the Mughal period. Needless to say, this water fort system is the first structure of the Mughal period. By whose hands the palace, fort, and building gradually evolved. Gradually things become quite popular. In course of time, the use of Jaldurga is almost non-existent even though the usage of all the structures is quite strong. Subaddar Mir Jumla built nine water forts in Bengal to protect Mughal Dhaka. Such as Idrakpur Fort, Kalagachia Fort, Sonakanda Fort (Subarkandi Fort), Hajiganj Fort (Old Khizirpur Fort), Dapa Fort, Fatulla Fort, Pagla Fort, Beg Murad Fort, Jinjira Fort etc. All these forts are river side. This is situated on the banks of the river. Water forts play a direct role in naval control. Many of the forts here have not survived. One of these three survives is Sonakanda Fort. Initially it was popularly known as Subarnakandi Fort but eventually it was renamed as Sonakanda Fort. The fort is very popular and known by this name till now. This paper contains numerous research works. Jaldurga is extensively discussed in the research paper. Initially, hands were assigned to determine the exact location of the water fort. The history of this fort is highlighted. The historic Sonakanda fort has been extensively documented architecturally. This documentation is accompanied by the required photographs and drawings. It also sheds light on how to restore this water castle and sustain it for the future. In this article, the historical issues, problem solving and the basics of conservation of these ancient artifacts are brilliantly discussed. And so this framework will be ready for the future. In this way, every historical place has to be prepared for the future. And in this way, their identity will be presented to future people with historical values.

Kandahar Province In the political and military conflict between India and Iran during the reign of Shah Jahan Mughali (1628-1658)

The political relations of each country at a certain historical stage can be a criterion for knowing the strength and weakness of that state in the fields (political, economic, or military). The Indian Mughal Empire during the reign of Shah Jahan had the lowest relations with neighboring countries on a general level and with the Safavid state on a Private level.The relations between the two countries over Kandahar deteriorated to the point of reaching a military confrontation, and although the result of the military confrontations was not reassuring for Shah Jahan from the political and military sides, he did not despair throughout his reign from his attempts to persist in the confrontation to control Kandahar, and this It is one of the prominent political features of his reign.The research included dealing with special features related to Kandahar in terms of the importance of the city and the reasons behind the interest of the Indian Mughal Empire in this city and clarifying the challenges and developments of the war on the city during the reign of Shah Jahan. This study consists of four axes, the first axis entitled (The Indian Mughal Empire's control of Kandahar in the year 1638) and sheds light on the city of Kandahar and its importance for the Mughal Indian Empire and the Safavid state, both economically and militarily, and then emphasizing the role of (Ali Mardan Khan Zik) in handing over Kandahar to the Mughal Indian Empire, and at the end of the axis, the political and military challenges that faced both countries after controlling Kandahar were highlighted. As for the second axis, it was devoted to discussing the conditions of the city of Kandahar during the period in which calm prevailed between the Mughal Indian Empire and the Safavid state. In the beginning, the political and diplomatic steps of Shah Jahan were discussed regarding his attempts to reduce tension in his relations with the Safavid state after the death of Shah Safi I, especially In the fourth year of the reign of Shah Abbas II.As for the third axis entitled the Safavid state’s control of Kandahar in 1649, in this axis, the military steps of Shah Abbas II were discussed with the aim of returning the Kandahar state to the grip of the authority of the Safavid state.In the fourth axis and at the end of the study, the trends and developments of the war in Kandahar and its surrounding areas were highlighted after it returned to the rule of the Safavid state and its effects, as well as the desperate attempts of Shah Jahan to restore his power throughout his reign. Key word: Kandahar, Indian Mughal Empire, Safavid, Shah Jahan Mughali, shah Abbas II, politics, relations.

Assessment of Climate Change Impact, Resistant Behavior, and Adaptation Possibilities on 16th to 18th Century CE Mughal Period’s Brick Monumental Structures of Haryana Region of the Indian Subcontinent

The value of the monumental structures of the Mughal era (1526 CE-1761 CE) of the Haryana region of India lies not only in its role as a witness to the rise and fall of the Mughal and Colonial eras, but also because it provides physical evidence for the austere tradition of give and take comprising the living knowledge and skill of Islamic architecture and indigenous skills, along with the geological origin of raw materials, artificial manufacturing, longevity, and durability of these huge earth-based masonry structures. Unfortunately, alterations due to the vagaries of weather and climate have badly affected the monumental structures, with even more damage possible in the future. Therefore, the objective of this work is the assessment of these monumental structures in terms of conservation and restoration work. Their survival thus far has been due to differences between the past and present climatic conditions, the structural strength of the monuments as a whole, and the durable characteristics of masonry materials. Hence, the identification of the environment affecting the monuments, and the intrinsic nature of masonry materials are valuable for determination of the expected stability and durability, and adaptation possibilities of monumental structures. Deterioration can be minimized by creating and retaining resilient environments around the monuments, which involves different approaches to planning, design, operation, management, value, and governance, and the use of suitable masonry materials as an adaptive measure, along with continuous monitoring of the actual impact.

Eufloria: An Exquisite Jewelry Brand Embracing Floral-tree Motif

The current study introduces a new jewelry brand Eufloria which is highly inspired by the combination of special floral-tree structure and Mughal era. The researchers’ designs infuse trees in the jewelry with a texture and color tones of Pakistani Mughal era into it. The current study is under the deep influence of Japanese culture and also aims to incorporate its fashion trends into it as well. The motive and objective behind these new designs of jewelry is to meet the demands of entire fashion industry of the current era. Jewelry has the ability to highlight women personality and bring out her best persona if a right jewelry is chosen for the right occasion. Today, the fashion industry is at its peak as the female models wear ornaments of variant styles on different events. These ornaments and their style are adopted by the modern-day women as they idolized celebrities. Furthermore, this study focuses on trending floral jewelry designs that are being appreciated by the younger generation, for instance, cherry blossom in shades of baby pink and ivory. In addition, we aim to design catalogues with its first collection along with inlays; and we will promote this vision via e-marketing platforms for which we shall create an Instagram and Facebook business page. These pages further include practice of a researcher’s designing skills for social media designing. This research work also reflects light on the package design for the products. Hence, it covers the entire graphic designing skills. In addition, online surveys will be conducted in order to determine the desirability of the project in this research.
 Index terms: Eufloria, fashion ornaments, floral motifs, jewelry, Mughal era.

The Development of Islam in The Mughal Time

It is thought that commercial networks allowed Islam to spread to India in the seventh century. The history of Islam's entrance in India, where the majority of the population is Hindu, and how it evolved there to give rise to the Indian Muslim community, cannot be isolated from the development of Islam during the Mughal era. Zainuddin Muhammad Babur (1482-1530 AD), who established the Mughal empire, ruled during its height from the time of Akbar (1556-1506 AD). That was the center of Islam's glories in India during the height of the Mughals' power under Sultan Akbar. both in terms of the advancement of civilization, thought, the economy, the government, and science, the arts, and culture. specifically, the height of the last Mughal empire due to a weak leader, the Mughals' decline soon after. The library was used as the primary research source for this investigation. Therefore, all of the data used in this study came from texts that dealt with this issue.
 Keywords: Development; Islam; Mughals; India

A Journey from Conception to Conservation: A Case Study of the Tomb of Nur Jahan at Shahdara, Lahore

Built heritage is very important for any nation. The objective manifestation of human mind is evident in the built monuments and historic sites. The tomb of Nur Jahan is one such monument which is reminiscent of the glorious reign of the Mughal Empire. It has its own importance because it is located in the Garden Complex of Shahdara, which has remained an important gateway to Lahore since the Mughal period. The tomb has remained a neglected monument in the Garden Complex of Shahdara due to various reasons. The objective of this study is to document the monument in addition to identifying its similarities with the other tombs of the complex, reasons of its decay, and the conservation work done. The tomb has lost its gardens, architectural elements, and landscape features. It has also sustained many damages and undergone repair with the passage of time. Previous studies showed that there have been multiple causes of decay, among which flood is a major one. Although, recent conservation has saved the monument from further deterioration. Thus, a thorough conservation and restoration strategy for this neglected piece of history would be developed using documented data and visually analysed historical asset, highlighting the asset's significance within the Shahdara Garden Complex.

Ibn Khaldun Theory of Asabiyyah and the Rise and Fall of the Mughals in South Asia

Abdur Rehman Ibn Khaldun was born on May 27, 1332, in Tunis into an Arab family of the Hadramaut which had first migrated to Spain, then to Morocco, and finally settled in Tunisia. He received a thorough education in theology and philosophy at the University (madrasa) of Tunis. At the age of twenty, he entered upon his chequered career, beginning as a secretary to the Sultan of Tunis. He served in various capacities and thus gained a versatile experience that helped him widening his understanding of human nature and political systems. Indeed, he was a prolific writer and scholar by leaving rich treatises on sociology, economics, history, politics, philosophy, and other disciplines. He propounded the theory of Asabiyyah: stemming out from blood lineage, common interests, common geography, and religion as a binding force and an ultimate factor of causing upswing and tumble to a dynasty or a state and thus he provided solid foundations to understand systematically the phenomenon of the rise and fall of dynasties and establishment of states and the factors which bring an ultimate decline to it. An attempt has been made in this article whilst applying this theory of Asabiyyah on the rise and fall of Mughals in South Asia. Founded by Babur in 1526, the Mughal Empire in India is divided into five periods as per the stages of Ibn Khaldun's theory of Asabiyyah and each period is presented analytically particularly in terms of the Asabiyyah. Thus, this article presented the Khaldun’s cycle of the dynasty on the Mughal Empire who fulfilled its five stages on the soil of India.

The Oldest Manuscripts from India and Their Histories

This essay examines a copy of the Qur’ān from India, now in the India Office Collections at the British Library. The manuscript, registered as IO Loth 4, belongs to the reasonably large group of early Qur’āns that date to the eighth and ninth centuries CE. While some of these manuscripts have charted histories, what is not widely known is that early Qur’āns also made their way to India. There they have their own special histories, meanings and associations. In attempt to address the long ‘after-life’ of these manuscripts, this paper will examine a single example that arrived in India in the Mughal period and was eventually presented to the Library of the East India House by Lord Dalhousie in 1853. While not the earliest of the Qur’āns brought to India, it nonetheless dates to the circa ninth century CE, making it older than any surviving manuscripts in Sanskrit or Prakrit in India proper.

When Muslim Rulers Were Like Hindu Gods

AbstractThe 1930s Hindi short story “Mugaloṃ ne saltanat bakhś dī” (“The Mughals Gave the Sultanate Away”) by self-proclaimed apolitical author Bhagavatīcaraṇ Varmā offers an alternative version of how the British Crown took the rule of India away from the Mughal Empire. An in-depth analysis of this story written during the buildup to the decolonization of India evaluates how two different kinds of what is often referred to as “outside rulers” are depicted in this story: the Mughal emperors and the British colonial rulers. This case study assesses whether the story shows a different attitude toward Mughals and the centuries-old Muslim culture in India, compared to how both historic rulers are viewed and represented by right-wing Hindu nationalists: Muslim Indians seem to be made part of the “other” rather than a part of an inclusive interpretation of the Indian “self.”

A Geographical Study of Temple Desecration: The Reign of Emperor Aurangzeb in India

The history of Aurangzeb’s reign for 50 years from 1658 to 1707 CE is an indelible part of the history of India. The Mughal Empire grew in the east and south of India, so did the religious persecution of the infidels. Their temples were demolished and their religious practices were put to end. The objective of this article is to carry out a geographical study of desecration of temples during his rule and find the possible reasons behind it. The study takes help from books written during his reign by the office bearers in his administration translated into English. Aurangzeb was of the view that temples can be desecrated any time as they cannot walk. He did issue several orders, specific as well as general, for the destruction of places of worship of the worthless infidels. The study concludes that the state of Rajasthan has witnessed the highest number of temple desecrations under his rule. From the first Muslim invasion till the modern times, the vandalism and desecration of places of worship of infidels seems to be inspired by the Islamic concept of Sunnah—which means following the sayings, teachings and doings of the Prophet.

Paper, Performance, and the State: Social Change and Political Culture in Mughal India By Farhat Hasan

‘The Collector of the Revenue should be a friend of the agriculturist. Zeal and truthfulness should be his rule of conduct. He should consider himself the representative of the lord paramount and establish himself where every one may have easy access to him without the intervention of a mediator’.1 ‘This Súbah [of Oudh] is divided into five Sarkárs and thirty-eight parganas. The measured lands are 1 kror, 1 lakh, 71,180 bíghas. Its revenue, 20 krors, 17 lakhs, 58,172 dáms (Rs. 5,043,954-4), of which 85 lakhs, 21,658 dáms (Rs. 213,041-7) are Suyúrghál. The provincial force consists of 7,640 Cavalry, 168,250 Infantry and 59 Elephants’.2 This is the Olympian view of the figure of the revenue collector, a state official, and of the province of Oudh in northern India in the Institutes of Akbar, compiled by Akbar’s vizier Abū al-Fażl. It provides a lofty image of the Mughal empire in which every person, every bīgha of land, and every dām of revenue are accounted for. Compare this with the account provided by a handbill (maḥżarnāma) roughly a hundred years later, ‘in which the petitioners, Ahmad, Muhammad Arif, and Ghiyasuddin’, accuse the family of a qāżī in the town Kantur and the adjoining villages in Oudh of illegally occupying lands that had been in their hereditary possession as a revenue-free grant, with the collusion of the revenue collector, one ‘Nur Muhammad’. ‘When the court sent troopers (sawārs) to settle the matter, the father of the qāzi, Muhammad Sharif, supported by one of his relatives, Taj Mahmud, and the aforesaid karōrī [revenue collector], raised a militia and attacked and harassed the imperial troops. […] The document ends by asking people who were aware of the incident to lend their signatures, and attest to the veracity of the allegations made by the petitioners’ (p. 107). This is a much more contested and ‘everyday’ view of the state, in which the revenue collector and the qāżī are not only making use of their local power to take possession over lands, but also resist the provincial imperial army with a militia of their own. But the handbill also suggests that while ‘the court was unsuccessful in checking the abuse of power by its officials such as this qāżī, local power-holders [like the petitioners] were not without resources of their own—their means of mobilization, protest, and opinion-making—to combat them, and to constrain the state within a shared, if still conflictual, framework of norms of rule’ (p. 107).

The Power of Parwanas: Indo-Persian Grants and the Making of Empire in Eighteenth-Century Southern India

This article examines Persian-language orders—parwanas—issued by regimes that succeeded the Mughal Empire in South Asia, to European trading companies. Focussing in particular on the mid-eighteenth-century exchanges between the Nizam of Hyderabad; the Nawab of Arcot; and the French Compagnie des Indes, we see how Mughal-style parwanas, or sub-imperial orders, previously used to give instructions or to make or withdraw grants, were transformed into a form of political currency. They were now used to exchange military and fiscal resources between South Asian state-builders and militarised European corporations, and to secure political legitimacy for all within a putative Mughal imperium. Moreover, the legal fiction of Mughal sovereignty led to a grants race, such that rivals—European and South Asian—sought more and more parwanas, while also querying the legitimacy of authorities that issued them. The very fragility of the Mughal empire and the lability of the political landscape in eighteenth-century South Asia was thus generative of prolific Persian legal documentation, as well as its rewiring to novel uses. European empire-builders negotiated this legal landscape with only partial literacy, consequently fetishizing the material aspects and ceremonial accompaniments of Persian legal documents, and according them power beyond their immediate substance.

Nature and Problems of the Feudal System in the Mughal Period: General Analysis

A large part of the production of most areas of the country was fraudulently appropriated by the feudal class. It would be very interesting to know how much of this they spent on the interests of their ruled classes. Although it is very difficult to get the information that how much money he used to spend on works for the welfare of the subjects, how much he gave in the treasury and how much he used to keep for creation, but something can be said about his works for public welfare. Each Mughal vassal had a semi-autonomous government of his own, consisting of his troops, subordinate officers, domestic staff, harem, servants and dependents. After fulfilling the obligations towards the Mughal emperor, they were free to spend their income according to the feudatories or other types of obligations. Wasn't interested either. The main reason for this is considered to be the royalty law (Snu and Mebbimanj). According to this law, after the death of the feudatories, all their property was deposited in the royal treasury. For this reason, the Mughal feudal lords were more interested in spending money instead of hoarding it. Only a few among the Mughal nobles had invested a part of their income in various kinds of enterprises. During the rule of Jahangir and Shah Jahan, Asaf Khan had accumulated immense wealth only because of his commercial interest.” Being an influential and close relative of both the emperors, he did not fear much for the safety of his wealth.
 Abstract in Hindi Language:
 देश के अधिकांश क्षेत्रों के उत्पादन का एक बहुत बड़ा भाग सामंत वर्ग कपटपूर्वक हस्तगत कर लेता था। यह ज्ञात करना बहुत रोचक होगा कि इसमें से कितना वे अपने शासित वर्ग के हितों पर व्यय करते थे। यद्यपि यह जानकारी प्राप्त करना अत्यन्त कठिन है कि वे प्रजा के हित के कार्यों पर कितना धन व्यय करते कितना खजाने में देते और कितना रचय के लिए रख लेते थे किन्तु उनके सार्वजनिक कल्याण के कार्यों के सम्बंध में कुछ तो कहा ही जा सकता है।‘‘ प्रत्येक मुगल सामंत की अपनी निजी एक अर्धस्वायत्त सरकार होती थी, जिसमें उनकी सैनिक टुकड़ी, अधीनस्थ अधिकारी घरेलू कर्मचारी, हरम, नौकर तथा आश्रित वर्ग सम्मिलित थे। मुगल सम्राट के प्रति दायित्व पूर्ति के बाद सामंतों या अन्य प्रकार के दायित्वों की पूर्ति के पश्चात् वे अपनी आय को अपने हिसाब से खर्च करने के लिए स्वतंत्र थे।‘‘ कुछ इतिहासकारों का यह मत है कि मुगलकालीन सामंत वर्ग में बचत के प्रति थोड़ी सी भी रूचि नहीं थी। इसका प्रमुख कारण राजगामिता कानून (Law of Escheat) को माना जाता है। इस कानून के अनुसार सामंतों की मृत्यु के पश्चात् उनकी सारी सम्पत्ति शाही खजाने में जमा कर दी जाती थी। इसी कारण से मुगल सामंतों में धन जमा करने के स्थान पर उसको खर्च करने में अधिक रूचि थी। मुगल अमीरों में कुछ ही लोगों ने अपनी आय का भाग विभिन्न प्रकार के उद्यमों में लगाया था। जहाँगीर एवं शाहजहाँ के शासन में आसफ खाँ ने अपनी वाणिज्यिक रूचि के कारण ही अपार धन एकत्र किया था।‘‘ दोनों बादशाहों का प्रभावशाली और निकट का रिश्तेदार होने के कारण उसे अपने धन की सुरक्षा का अधिक भय नहीं था।
 Keywords: मुगल, सामंत, सामाजिक, वित्तीय, चुनौतियाँ।

Sikh insurgency in pre-British India: origin, context and legacies

ABSTRACT Sikh dominance in the Indian military started under the British in the late nineteenth century. The Sikh insurgency which rocked Punjab in the 1980s remains independent India’s most serious internal rebellion. In fact, the warrior ethos and military martyrdom in the Sikh community could be traced back to the precolonial era. This essay traces the history of the evolution of Khalsa’s military culture. I argue that the Sikhs were already a ‘martial race’ like the Marathas, Rajputs and the Gurkhas before the British imperial conquest. By making a case study of Sikh insurgency against the Mughal Empire, this essay shows that insurgency serves as a major educational and military mobilising tool in the creation of martial cultures/races.

Building Burhanpur: The Process of Constructing a Mughal City

Abstract When Emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605) conquered Burhanpur, the capital of the Khandesh sultanate, in 1601, he catalyzed a decades-long process of transforming the city into a regional capital of the Mughal empire. In this essay, I argue that Mughal Burhanpur was constructed in three stages of spatial and architectural developments over the course of three decades. In the first stage, Akbar symbolically appropriated Burhanpur’s preexisting monumental architecture to demonstrate his conquest over the city. In the second stage, subimperial officers expanded the city through prolific patronage of civic architecture, most notably an underground canal system that carried fresh water several kilometers into the city. Lastly, when Shah Jahan (r. 1628–58) moved to the city in 1629, he implemented a new program of architectural construction that transformed Burhanpur from a provincial capital into an imperial one in just over two years. From symbolic appropriation to urban expansion and then to the implementation of an imperial architectural program, this three-part construction process ultimately transformed a town on the edge of an empire into a legible Mughal city.

Book review: Ebba Koch, ed., in collaboration with Ali Anooshahr, The Mughal Empire from Jahangir to Shah Jahan: Art, Architecture, Politics, Law and Literature

Ebba Koch, ed., in collaboration with Ali Anooshahr, The Mughal Empire from Jahangir to Shah Jahan: Art, Architecture, Politics, Law and Literature. Mumbai: The Marg Foundation, 2019, 320 pp.

DARUL ULUM DEOBAND: PRESERVING RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL INTEGRITY OF SOUTH ASIAN MUSLIMS THROUGH STRUCTURAL AND STRATEGIC INNOVATIONS

The end of Mughal Empire in the wake of War of Independence 1857 left the Muslim community of South Asia political orphans; desperately facing religious and cultural assaults, political as well as economic victimization and marginalization under British Raj. At this time of vulnerability of the Muslim society, it was the educational institutions established by Muslim ideologues which took up the task of strengthening, reforming and revitalizing the Muslim society to cope with the challenges pushing them down to the bottom, they also helped them regain the lost confidence and integrity. These institutions were not merely educational bodies but the movements endeavoring for Muslim renaissance in South Asia. Among them, one was Darul Ulum Deoband which, from its inception to date, played a historic role in confronting the politico-cultural challenges to the South Asian Muslims by adopting dynamic political strategies and accommodating modern structural innovative modifications in the institutions. This, indeed, helped it be a popular movement and achieve its objectives. The present paper goes into some of important historical developments such as: socio-political circumstances which led to the origination of madrasah Deoband, lofty vision and objectives envisaged by its founders, administration of educational-cum-institutional paraphernalia, nationalist stance and struggle for freedom carried out by the Deobandi veterans, strategies and policies it adopted to deal with political challenges faced by the Indian Muslims during British Raj and after partition of India. It explores and discusses the factors which helped this school of thought be popular and become one of the major sects of Islam. Moreover, it also brings in the much debated issue of its stance on jihad, militant struggle and terrorism. By bringing to light the historical developments, vision of its founders, objectives they determined to achieve and strategies they devised to tackle the challenges, the paper argues that the main concern of Darul Ulum Deoband’s activities was and has been to preserve the Muslim culture in South Asia and to restore the confidence of the Muslim community which they lost after the First War of Independence in 1857 and decline of Mughal Empire, and the modernist and innovative strategies it adopted to achieve its objectives, despite the criticism from within and outside, led to it emerging as one of the dominant sects of Islam.

Dharmaśāstra in Aurangzeb’s India: A Persian Translation of the Yājñavalkya Smṛti and Mitākṣarā

Abstract This article explores the use of dharmaśāstra in Mughal India through the case of a little-known seventeenth-century Persian translation of a dharmaśāstra text entitled Aḥkām-i awāmir wa nawāhī-yi mazhab-i hunūd (Legal rulings on commanding [right] and forbidding [wrong] of the legal school of the Hindus). The work, apparently completed in 1658 by a Kāyastha named Lāl Bihārī Bhojpurī, is a translation of the Yājñavalkya Smṛti together with the Mitākṣarā and includes lavish praise of Aurangzeb ʿĀlamgīr (d. 1707). I investigate the broader context in which the Aḥkām was produced and argue that this work represents an effort to delineate the boundaries of a separate legal space for Hindus from the standpoint of a munshī committed to Persianate culture and the ethos of Mughal imperial service. Persian dharmaśāstra translations later came to play a role in British colonial efforts to codify Hindu law for use in the administration of justice. The prior engagements with dharmaśāstra in the Persian language are suggestive of a more complex background to such colonial enterprises than modern scholarship has hitherto identified.

Before the West: The Rise and Fall of Eastern World Orders

International relations (IR) research has increasingly explored non-Eurocentric histories by analyzing, for example, different historical international systems, societies, and orders beyond Europe, as well as the agency of non-Western polities in constituting world politics (see Phillips and Sharman 2015; Hobson 2020; Spruyt 2020). Before the West contributes to this burgeoning literature. Zarakol offers a longue durée “account of the history of Eastern ‘international relations’” (p. 6), focusing on the interactions between Eurasian polities and the rise and fall of Eurasian world orders between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries. The analysis starts with the rise of the Mongols and their conquests across Eurasia, resulting in the establishment of the Mongol Empire in the thirteenth century. This historical event constituted the foundation for three successive Eurasian world orders to emerge: the Chinggisid world order of the Mongol Empire in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; the post-Chinggisid world order, consisting of the Timurid Empire (Iran and Central Asia) and the Ming Dynasty (China) in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; and the “global” post-Timurid world order of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which incorporated Eurasian and European polities.