Mughal Empire Research Articles

Role of Women in the Mughal Empire

Abstract: The following paper’s major objective is to explore the Mughal harem's dynamism and to examine the diverse accomplishments and achievements of the women who were there with the focus also kept on the common women as well wherever needed. The following paper tries to discuss the historical achievements and lows that have occurred in the life of women in Mughal history. Focusing on political to social history aspects, integrating women, and evaluating their influence during the Mughal era. The present research paper examines significantly Mughal women's history, gender, identity, and gender relations difficulties, as well as women's participation in sociocultural and religious activities, medically, etc. The paper makes the case that the history of Mughal India was greatly influenced by the deeds, operations, and contributions of various royal women. As a result, efforts should be made to study the political history of the Mughal era in relation to the private lives, deeds, and participation of women in various spheres during that time. It will be highlighting all the aspects like education, politics, religion, etc. from common women to the royal women at the time of the Mughals from Babur to Aurangzeb.

Book review: Farhat Hasan, Paper, Performance, and the State: Social Change and Political Culture in Mughal India

Farhat Hasan, Paper, Performance, and the State: Social Change and Political Culture in Mughal India. Cambridge University Press, 2021, pp. 155. ISBN: 9781009025256.

State of forgiveness: Cooperation, conciliation, and state formation in Mughal South Asia (1556–1707)

AbstractThis paper contributes to a growing literature on state capacity with reference to the early modern Asian empires. The historiography of these states, and especially the Mughal empire of South Asia, has moved away from an image of unrestrained despotism towards that of a constrained state, but has yet to explore fully what these constraints were and what the state did to overcome them. Using a new dataset on conflicts in Mughal South Asia, and an analytical model, the paper shows how forgiving rebel leaders was used as a strategic tool to secure stability, in a setting where high information costs made intermediaries indispensable to the state. The paper also offers some comparison between Asian empires on the role of intermediaries in shaping state constraint and fiscal policies.

Political Evolution of Kashmir during the Mughal Period

The Mughal period in Kashmir's history, spanning from the late 16th to the late 17th century, signifies a transformative phase in the region's political tapestry. With its strategic significance and natural allure, Kashmir invariably drew the attention of Mughal emperors, culminating in its annexation under Emperor Akbar in 1586. This research delves into the consequential shifts in political paradigms during the Mughal reign. It underscores the sophisticated administrative frameworks introduced, exemplified by the 'Mansabdari' system, and the meticulous blend of military strategy with diplomatic outreach to ensure regional stability. Further, the paper highlights the nuanced governance approaches of successive Mughal emperors, delineating their individual contributions and challenges. As the broader Mughal Empire exhibited signs of decline, its reverberations in Kashmir's political scenario are also explored, marking the transition to ensuing power struggles. This study, thus, offers a comprehensive insight into the intricate dynamics that shaped Kashmir's political landscape during the Mughal epoch, emphasizing the empire's lasting legacies and the region's evolution in response to them.

BUILDINGOF THE MUGHAL NAVAL FORCES

The military was a major element of the Mughal Empires strength and integrity. Beginning with the formation and mobility of the Mughal land army which led to their victory in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, the Mughal military power grew rapidly alongside the development of the Mughal Empire itself. In compatibility with the position of the Mughal Empire which also controlled the Indian Ocean, Mughal rulers paid attention to the building of the naval force. Commencing with the onset of that statement, the purpose of this article is to examine the purpose of and approaches undertaken by the Mughals in building their naval strength, especially in dealing with enemy threats and consolidating their dominance in the Indian Ocean. This study applied a qualitative approach through historical research and content analysis when collecting and analyzing data from primary and secondary sources. Research findings show that the Mughal navy was built during the era of Akbars reign with the aim of reinforcing the position of the Mughal Empire in several key regions, Gujarat and Bengal being among them, which contributed to economic development within the kingdom. The naval force was given full attention by post-Akbar rulers for the purpose of providing movement support to the land army and dealing with the presence of European powers in India, such as the Portuguese and the British.

Banda Singh Bahadur: Struggle with Mughal State and establishment of Sikh State

Banda Singh Bahadur, who took up the sword against the Mughals in the 18th century, marched from Nanded towards Punjab after taking the orders of Guru Gobind Singh ji. In which he faced many difficulties but he faced these difficulties with his martial arts and intelligence. After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire began to decline and his weak successors could not handle the Mughal Empire this benefited the rulers who were troubled by the exploitation of the Mughal Empire. In this, Banda Singh Bahadur also emerged as a ruler. Banda Singh Bahadur fought on small areas of the Mughals and took his right, in which he kept getting success and he kept moving forward. The biggest achievement of Banda Singh Bahadur was the Battle of Sirhind. Banda Singh Bahadur did all the political-administrative work during his rule.

When Mice Eat Cats: An Allegory of Empire as Border Art in the Diary of an Eighteenth-Century Mughal Bureaucrat

The study of Mughal history has relied extensively on manuscript sources in Persian language, especially court chronicles, travelers' tales, biographical dictionaries, and statistical accounts. Visual evidence, to the limited extent it is identified for study, tends to focus on court paintings, monumental architecture, or exceptional regalia left by royals. This essay breaks new ground by introducing a less elite source with striking visuals that helps to challenge dominant explanations of social change in eighteenth-century India. The source is the Persian diary of a lower-level Mughal bureaucrat named Itimad Ali Khan titled Mirat-ul Ḥaqaiq or Mirror of Events. Produced in the 1720s and acquired by East India Company official James Fraser during his stay in Gujarat, the compendium is now held at the Bodleian Library at Oxford University. We begin by highlighting the cultural environment within which the Mirat-ul Ḥaqaiq was produced, and then present a conjectural interpretation of some stunning and unusual border art set across eight folios of the manuscript. Critical to this effort is an altogether new translation of the 71 lines of poetry that accompany the colorful illustrations. The art sequence tells the tale of a powerful and overconfident Cat King who is unexpectedly defeated by mice underlings. Despite recent scholarship that emphasizes eighteenth-century India as a period of continuity, growth, and economic prosperity, we suggest that for those directly involved in Mughal administration like Itimad Ali Khan, the spirit of the age felt more like one of social decline and political disorder boldly expressed by the topsy-turvy imagery of mice devouring cats.

BABUR THE FOUNDER OF MUGHAL EMPIRE IN INDIA

The fourteenth century of the Christian period was a time of significant transition. The social and political environment was undergoing changes. Strong, centralized empires were erected in the east, while the middle classes in the west started to seek and obtain a part of government. Islamic control thrived during this period, bringing people from all over the globe together via trade and business. There were such powerful and centralized Islamic empires as the Mongols, Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. The Mughal Empire was made up of the conflicted, cooperative, and inventive relationships between the imperial dynasty and individuals from a wide range of cultural backgrounds in the numerous Indian territories that it was in charge of at the time. Three centuries' worth of rule might be attributed to the Empire. The Empire reached its zenith as the most powerful and prosperous state in human history

The Historical Evolution of Khadi

The pre-indepence symbolism of khadi was firmly intertwined with home rule and self- sufficiency, or Swaraj and Swadeshi. This paper traces the evolution of Khadi from its ancient predecessors in the form of coarse hand spun cloth that existed in India during the Vedic periods and after to the Mughal era and thereafter during the British colonial period and post- independence. It examines the various factors that linked khadi to the freedom movement and Mahatma Gandhi and then the reasons for its decline in the post-independence era and then its present revival. For this purpose, an extensive review of literature and an interview with textile expert Sabita Radhakrishna was conducted. This paper will highlight the advantages of using khadi and the various impediments that the khadi sector faced to create awareness and boost sales of the fabric and the khadi readymade garment. It also examines the evolution of khadi from a “Freedom Fabric” to a “Fashionable Fabric” and why present-day designers are using khadi in their new collections and gives recommendations on how to create an awareness of khadi as the answer to sustainable fashion.

BORDER DESIGNING AND IT’S DECORATION IN MUGHAL MINIATURE PAINTINGS

The Mughal emperors had a keen interest in painting, due to which, under their rule, painting again started progressing rapidly on the development side. The development of painting began with the rule of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, and continued till the end of Shah Jahan's reign. The development of painting started during the reign of Akbar and the painting reached its climax during the reign of Jahangir.Border designing or hashiya of Mughal paintings were also made by skilled artists, who were perfect in making only hashiya. Along with the picture, there was a practice of tying the picture to the khat all around. Pratap (2017). These khats were decorated with beautiful ornate designs. In addition to bell-boots, these borders had anthropomorphic or hunting related designs. Often the gold or silver plates were sprinkled on the hashiya or they were divided into small and large khat in flat two-three colors.

Islam di India pada Masa Kepemimpinan Sultan Akbar (1556-1605 M)

The spread of Islam in India is inseparable from the influence of Mughal power. One of the sultans who had a big role in this matter was Sultan Jalaluddin Akbar or better known as Sultan Akbar. He was the third sultan who came to power in 1556-1605 AD. In this article, we will discuss the biography of Sultan Jalaluddin Akbar, the achievements of Sultan Akbar during his reign in India, and the development of Islam in India at that time. The research method used in this article is the historical research method. The results of this study indicate that during the reign of Sultan Akbar, the Moghul empire managed to dominate India widely to Gujarat. Sultan Akbar also made a policy in the form of acculturation between Islamic culture and local Indian culture which eventually gave birth to an Indian-Islamic culture. This acculturation is an attempt to quell Indian society's rejection of Islam.

A Study on Economic Development Under Mughal Rule in Kashmir

The Mughal period in Kashmir emerged as a defining era, characterized by transformative socio-economic and cultural shifts. This research delves into the multifaceted influence of the Mughal Empire on Kashmir, examining the administrative reforms, economic prosperity, architectural marvels, and the intertwining of Mughal and Kashmiri identities. While the region thrived under the Mughals, experiencing urban growth, trade expansion, and cultural renaissance, it simultaneously grappled with economic challenges, including high taxation, middlemen exploitation, and external threats. The study juxtaposes the region's advancements, such as the Zabt system and the architectural legacies of emperors like Jahangir and Shah Jahan, against the backdrop of inherent vulnerabilities and external pressures. In essence, the Mughal influence on Kashmir presents a rich tapestry of growth, integration, challenges, and resilience, offering profound insights into the complexities of regional governance and identity formation within a vast empire. This research serves as a comprehensive exploration of a historically significant period, emphasizing the nuanced interplay between power, culture, and economics in shaping the destiny of a region.

AN ANALYSIS OF THE PRESENTATION OF CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION IN “KAI CHAND THEY SAR-E-AASMAN”

The novel "Kai Chand Thy Sar-e-Asman" written by a famous critic, researcher, poet, short story writer, translator, and writer "Shams ur Rehman Farooqi" was derived from the eventual history of the Subcontinent during the 18th and beginning of 19th century; including the era of British Imperialism and demise of Mughal Empire. The events occur and excel around the main character "Wazir Begum" with the blend of the Urdu language and multicultural civilization of the 18th century. Therefore, this novel, which is deeply rooted in the culture and civilization of its era, could also be seen as a socio-cultural document. In this article, the analysis of culture and civilization presented in the novel is brought into the limelight."

Legal and political intervention on language issues in Bangladesh: A sociolinguistic perspective

The article outlined the legal and political intervention on language issues in Bangladesh from a historical sociolinguistic perspective. More specifically, it chronologically criticised the constitution and laws issued regarding language for the time being by state holders. In his article, the author tried to present the current issue and the question of language policy and planning in Bangladesh. Furthermore, it showed the drawbacks of previous language acts in Bangladesh. Consequently, the article illustrates the contextual interplay between language policy and linguistic rights in Bangladesh. This article used data from primary sources (constitution and government orders, ordinances, and circulations, etc.) to draw some preliminary conclusions about the challenges involved in the language controversy. One of its central themes was the linguistic rights of ethnic people, minor communities, and indigenous language speakers respectively. This article investigated how state politics and language historically affected each other. The analytical framework of the article is built on Language Education Policy (LEP) as a conceptual framework of Baldauf and Ingram (2003) which is one of the most widely researched theoretical perspectives in language policy and planning. The findings confirmed linguistic hegemony and dominance in Bangladesh by constitution and law. The most important contribution of the article was the sociolinguistic overview of the significant language laws of Bangladesh chronologically. It provided recommendations on the development of democratic language policy in Bangladesh.Keywords: Language in the Mughal period; Language in the British period; Language in the Pakistan period; Language in the Bangladesh period; Language rights for indigenous people; Language debate; Linguistic rights.

Local Administrative Structure of the Suba Kabul Under the Mughals

The paper gives a detail about the local administration of the suba Kabul at the sarkar level. it also gives a detail description about the administrative division of the suba of Kabul and the role of faujdar, his power and functions in this regard. Kabul from the time of its annexation by Akbar in 1585, remained a permanent part of Mughal India till the time it was taken over by the Persian invader Nadir Shah in 1739. Though it was quite distant from the imperial capital, but it was very significant for the Mughals. According to Abul Fazl Kabul along with Qanadahar served as two gates to Hindustan, therefore control over Kabul was very vital. Considering this the Mughal rulers had always given the charge of this Suba to their high ranking as well as capable nobles.

Pre-Modern Islam: The Practice of Tasawwuf and its Influence in the Spiritual and Literary Cultures

The modern narrative of Islam is one which differs from the pre-colonial narrative. The practice of Tasawwuf is a sacred one and not many people are aware of the actual core and values of it. However, its concepts of Tawheed, Ihsan, and Tahqiq have been present since pre-colonial South Asian Islam. This paper focuses on pre-modern South Asian Islamic traditions along with the influence of Tasawwuf during the Mughal era and their evolution with time by comparing them to global Islamic traditions while outlining some similarities as well by exploring the literary culture. This paper argues how Islam now is a rigid system but that had not always been the case and also rebuttals the claims of western historians.

The Garden of Babur in Kabul: A Dynastic Project of the Mughal Dynasty and Its Survival

The Bagh-i Babur in Kabul is generally held to have been founded by Babur in 1504, when he made Kabul his home. A close examination of the Mughal sources, however, reveals a more complex picture. I suggest that, contrary to other Mughal funerary gardens, which were built by a single patron, the Bagh-i Babur was a dynastic project of several succeeding generations of Mughal emperors. It was incepted by Babur; preserved by his sons Mirza Kamran and Humayun, and his grandson Mirza Hakim, as an honoured burial site of the early Mughals; enclosed and transformed, as I suggest, into a grand terraced construction by Emperor Akbar; highlighted by Emperor Jahangir with dynastic inscriptions; and thoroughly renovated and enriched with buildings by Emperor Shah Jahan. After the Mughal era, the garden became a place of recreation for the people of Kabul, and at the end of the nineteenth century it was rehabilitated and appropriated as a residential pleasance by the Afghan kings, who shaped their reigns and concepts of kingship on Mughal models. After periods of unrest and destruction, the garden was reconstructed in the early twenty-first century and became a public park for the people of Kabul.

Mehrdad Fallahzadeh. An Anthology of Indo-Persian Writings on Hindustani Music Theory from the Mughal Period

Mehrdad Fallahzadeh. An Anthology of Indo-Persian Writings on Hindustani Music Theory from the Mughal Period

Mughal Heritage in Delhi: Toponymics Manipulation

In the post-colonial world, when new nations one after another gained independence and got out of the colonialists hand, “toponymic games” have become a global phenomenon. The main goal of such manipulations was to return historical justice, to remove associations with the oppressive past from the collective memory of citizens. Post-colonial India was also affected by renaming stir at various levels. Toponyms associated with Muslim dynasties began to undergo changes at the most. Muslim dynasties ruled India from the XIII to the mid XIX century. Over this long period of time, they had a great impact on the history and culture of India. Muslim influence especially affected the capital city of Delhi. This significant historical period is also reflected in the toponymy of the city. The article shows how the names of streets associated with the history of Mughal India are being erased from the map of Delhi and from the memory of the inhabitants of Delhi in recent years (often it’s being done at the initiative of politicians affiliated with the pro-Hindu BJP). Each year the New Delhi Municipal Committee receives more than 300 street and park renaming requests. Aurangzeb Road in New Delhi (which name was changed to A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Road in August 2015) was the first to be renamed. In an effort to make nice with the Hindu majority, rename claims are on the rise during India’s election campaigns. Nonmuslims say that all the troubles of the country came to the fore as the result of the Muslim invasion. So, the point of street rename is not in the dissonance of toponyms themselves, but in their meaning.

ՀԱՅԱՍՏԱՆԻՑ ԳՏՆՎԱԾ ՀՆԴԿԱՍՏԱՆԻ ՄԵԾ ՄՈՂՈԼՆԵՐԻ ԴՐԱՄՆԵՐԸ ԵՎ ԴՐԱՆՑ ԴԵՐԸ ՄԻՋԱԶԳԱՅԻՆ ԱՌԵՎՏՐՈՒՄ (ՀԱՅ.) / THE COINS OF THE GREAT MOGHULS OF INDIA FOUND IN ARMENIA AND THEIR ROLE IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE

An important source for studying Armenian history is not only the coins of Armenian and foreign rulers minted in Armenia, but also coins that came to Armenia from distant countries, some of which came here as a result of trade activities. From this point of view, the gold and silver coins of the Great Mughals of India found in Armenia are of great interest. There are few of them, but the existing facts need analysis and assessment. This work examines the coins of the Great Mughals, which were found on the territory of the Republic of Armenia and stored in the History Museum of Armenia. In 1983, a hoard consisting of 203 Persian silver and 6 Indian gold coins was discovered in the village of Ferik, Armavir province. Three of the Indian coins belong to the Great Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb (1069-1118 = 1658-1707), and the remaining three belong to Muhammad Shah (1131-1161 = 1719-1748). The loss of hoard occurred in the middle of the 18th century. Mughal gold coins are called mohurs. These coins were in circulation in India, Nepal and Afghanistan. They were first meanted by Akbar around 1562. The coin was of very high quality and weighed about 11 g. Mohur, like other Muslim coins, had no images and contained only ornaments and inscriptions. Since the time of Aurangzeb, the year of issue appears on them. The Mughal Empire ruled much of northern India and South Asia for three centuries, from the early 16th century to the mid-18th century. It had an economy based on a stable currency of gold, silver and copper.