Military Development Research Articles

ЗАВДАННЯ ТА ПРИНЦИПИ ВЗАЄМОДІЇ МІНІСТЕРСТВА ОБОРОНИ УКРАЇНИ З ІНШИМИ ДЕРЖАВНИМИ ОРГАНАМИ

The article substantiates the relevance of clarification, formulation and delimitation of tasks and principles of interaction of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine with other state bodies. It is noted that one of the essential signs of interaction is the commonality of the tasks performed, objectively substantiates the expediency of combining the efforts of two or more participants in the interaction. The Ministry of Defense of Ukraine interacts with other state bodies, primarily with those that are part of the security and defense sector, to ensure the formation and implementation of state policy on national security in the military sphere, defense and military development in peacetime and a special period. The weight of these tasks and their strategic importance for the state, society and every citizen determines the importance of establishing effective interaction, depends primarily on the basic principles of its organization and implementation. Therefore, the article substantiates the relevance of the study of the tasks and principles of interaction of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine with other state bodies. The article analyzes the provisions of the current administrative legislation regulating the task of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine with other state bodies. The tasks of interaction of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine with other state bodies in the context of two interrelated and complementary groups have been clarified, formulated and delimited: 1) the tasks set for the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine are planned to be achieved, including through interaction with other state bodies; 2) tasks of direct interaction of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine with other state bodies, the expected results from the implementation of which determine the actual expediency of this interaction. The highlighted principles of interaction of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine with other state bodies, which were divided into two complementary groups: 1) basic principles of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine, including its interaction with other state bodies: a) universal management principles; b) regulatory and legal principles; c) special principles of activity of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine; 2) specific principles of interaction of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine with other state bodies, on which this interaction is directly based and on which the effectiveness of its implementation depends.

Integrating Privacy Concerns in the Development and Introduction of New Military or Dual Use Technologies

Integrating Privacy Concerns in the Development and Introduction of New Military or Dual Use Technologies

Organizational transformations of the Crown Army during the war of the Vistula mouth, 1626–1629

The article explores the organizational transformations of the Crown army during the war with Sweden in the years 1626–1629. On the basis of fiscal sources, correspondence, and war accounts, the author established that the number of Sigismund III’s troops increased. In 1629 they were more numerous in Prussia than the combined armies in Prussia and in Ukraine three years earlier. Positional warfare with the Swedes, who had a considerable number of well-trained infantry and perfect artillery, required a change in the structure of the army, over half of which during hostilities consisted of dragoons and infantry formations, especially those of the foreign contingent. Over the course of the war, free companies (freikompanie), which made up a core of the infantry at the beginning of the war, were mostly replaced by large regiments of over three thousand pay rates. Also, successful attempts were made to create infantry units trained and armed in the German manner, commanded by foreigners, but recruited among Sigismund III’s subjects, and the ranks of Polish-Hungarian infantry were reinforced. In the ranks of cavalry, reiters were of more importance than in Ukraine. They grew into a third force in the Polish cavalry, after Polish hussars and Cossacks. Considerably smaller changes occurred for artillery, which despite significant expenses was still inferior to that of the Swedish artillery. Sigismund III’s troops also struggled with the deficiency of experienced engineers and cartographers. Although after the Altmark armistice the king had to reduce the army, from which the infantry disappeared almost entirely, dragoons were preserved in Ukraine thanks to Crown Field Hetman Koniecpolski. From that time on, they would constitute an indispensable part of the wojsko kwarciane (quarter army). The significance of the Prussian war for the development of the Crown military is best illustrated by the fact that in 1633, in the course of preparations for the war with Muscovy for Smolensk, Władysław IV and his advisers organized the army largely in the manner of the years 1626–1629.

The digital transformation and application prospect of military procurement management

Throughout the military and economic development of various countries and the frontier of public resources, the development from informatization to digitalization and intellectualization has become the inevitable call of The Times. In the era of digital logistics, strengthening the digital management ability of military procurement is an inevitable outcome to meet the needs of modern war. Procurement digital management integrates big data, cloud computing, Internet of Things, process automation and other technologies to help the digital upgrading of traditional procurement links. How to apply digital technology to promote the construction and development of modern military procurement has become a subject worth in-depth discussion.

Nove vojne tehnologije i koncepti nastali nakon iskustava iz sirijskog sukoba

Introduction/purpose: The purpose of this paper is to presents some tendencies stemming from the experiences from the ongoing Syrian conflict towards the development of new military concepts and technologies. The manner, scope and dynamics of exploitation of the combat experience from the Syrian conflict is a good example how great powers improve the capabilities of their defense systems. Methods: An extensive content analysis of selected reference sources has been applied. The system approach was used for a structural and balanced presentation of the available information. The comparative analysis has confirmed some similarities in the behavior of the great powers in terms of deploying and testing complex combat systems of strategic importance in local wars. Inductive thinking has contributed to the synthesis of appropriate conclusions. Results: Among the presence of several great and regional powers heavily involved in this conflict, Russia's is considered to be the most dominant and as such is the main subject of investigation in this paper. Field testing of new military equipment is known to be important but of extreme importance is its testing under real combat conditions. In parallel with intensive testing of a wide range of military technologies, there are indicators of developing new concepts, doctrines, and organizational upgrades on the basis of the Syrian combat experiences. Conclusion: From the standpoint of military technology and concept development, the Russian endeavor in Syria has become an example of a comprehensive and systematic aproach to learning, training, innovations, and implementations of the most relevant factors in the development of a modern military organization as a response to challenges of contemporary armed conflicts.

Политические аспекты военно-технического сотрудничества между Россией и Саудовской Аравией

The role of Russia in the Middle East region has been increasing since the start of operation in Syria. This forces not only Russia, but also the Middle East countries including Saudi Arabia to adjust their politics according to the current situation. Both Russia and Saudi Arabia actively use military technical cooperation to develop relations with other countries, so it is essential that in their interstate relations this instrument should be applied. In this article, the military technical cooperation between Russia and Saudi Arabia is under consideration. The article aims to determine the dependence of military technical cooperation between the countries on politics. There is a lack of literature on the issue; the main part of it covers military technical cooperation between Russia and the Middle East countries and also the interstate relations with them in general. Due to the specific character of the arms trade sphere, the volume of sources is also insufficient. However, it is possible to carry out an analysis that allows forming the general image of the military technical cooperation between Russia and Saudi Arabia and its reason on the basis of related mass media publications and SIPRI data. The analysis of the Russia-Saudi Arabia military technical cooperation development shows that its expansion is in correlation with the growing role of Russia in the Middle East. In the middle of the 2010s, a number of contracts were concluded and performed. The following reasons of this expansion can be mentioned: problems in interstate relations between Saudi Arabia and the Western countries caused by the conflict in Yemen and Jamal Khashoggi's killing, the Arms Trade Treaty limitations for trade with Saudi Arabia for Western countries, Saudi Arabia's diversification of arms suppliers, search of Russia for new arms markets, etc. Nevertheless, these reasons cannot be assumed as reasons of crucial importance: the Western countries maintain their positions on the Saudi Arabia arms market despite all the limitations and issues in interstate relations, Saudi Arabia is not the key arms market for Russia; moreover, the integration of Russian arms systems into Saudi Arabia's armed forces formed by the Western military standard is quite complicated. Taking into account all the limitations related to the military technical cooperation between the countries, it can be stated that neither Russia nor Saudi Arabia has crucial economical or technical reasons for its start. Therefore, the following conclusion can be made: military technical cooperation between these countries is not a single process; it is caused by a whole direction of interstate relations, and it is only an instrument to boost them.

Research on the Integrated Support of Equipment under Green Ecological Concept

In the context of the country’s great efforts to build a socialist ecological development, the weaponry and equipment, as an important part of the development of the national defense, are becoming more and more important in the direction of green ecological environment. The article analysed and discussed several key ways of implementing green integrated support of equipment-----green design for equipment, green manufacturing for equipment, and green maintenance for equipment, which promotes coordinated and continuous development of military, environment and economy on the basis of expounding the connotation of green ecological environment and equipment integrated support.

Twenty first century development in the Hungarian Defence Forces : The KC-390 tactical military transport aircraft

The paper gives a short historical overview of the types of aircraft representing airlift capabilities in certain periods of the life of the Hungarian Defence Forces and pays tribute to air and ground operations personnel. Describing the military transport aircraft capabilities to be developed within the framework of the Zrínyi Defence and Military Development Program, the reader will gain insight into the ever evolving he reader will gain insight into the ever evolving nature of complex airlift capabilities and the tasks resulting from participation in Alliance, international and domestic missions. The article provides a detailed description of the new, soon to be acquired military transport aircraft Embraer KC-390 Millennium.

Украина: основные политические итоги года

In 2021 in Ukraine as a result of several objective reasons prerequisites were formed for a serious internal political crisis. Problems related to the shortage of energy resources may become a catalyst for negative processes in the economy and politics which will most likely lead to early parliamentary elections. In the south-east of the country, the Ukrainian leadership is deliberately escalating the conflict, which may lead to the resumption of active hostilities in the region. On the outer contour, Kiev’s Western partners continued a military development of Ukrainian territory, although they are still in no hurry to grant Ukraine the status of a full member of NATO. There have also been no changes in the country's relations with the European Union. Fearing the undesirable consequences of the launch of the Nord Stream 2, Kiev continued to actively fight for the preservation of gas transit through its GTS.

Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and His Relationship with the Army in France

One of the aspects of the activities of France’ President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing is considered — his relationship with the army in a comparative historical context, namely: the context of the relationship between civilian power and the military. The French specificity of these relations, which developed with the coming to power of General Charles de Gaulle in 1958, is shown. The peculiarities of the formed mechanism of military decision-making in France, which resulted from the concentration of powers and legitimacy by the President — Commander-in-chief of the armed forces, are highlighted. The analysis of the reasons for the urgent issues in the army by the beginning of the presidential term of V. Giscard d'Estaing is carried out; the President's measures to strengthen this key republican institution were assessed. Attention is paid to the attempts of V. Giscard d'Estaing to adapt the French policy of nuclear deterrence to the evolution of the geopolitical situation during his time in power, which did not always meet with support in the military environment and in civil society. Two episodes (in Chad and Zaire) were singled out as examples of France's external military operations (OPEX) on the African continent under V. Giscard d'Estaing, where his role as Commander-in-chief was most clearly manifested. The underestimated role of V. Giscard d'Estaing as head of State was noted, including in strengthening the country's defence potential and in creating conditions for the further advancement of military development.

Modern understanding of war strategy and the NATO bloc as one of the security factors

Today, globalization is a civilizational process of forming a new world order that is carried out through institutional forms on aglobal scale such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Organization for Education, Science and Culture (UNESCO), the NorthAtlantic Alliance (NATO). Ukraine-NATO relations include political, military, law enforcement and economic components. Theinevitable aspect of the evolution of these relations is the transformation of the international security system, the analysis of which is aguarantee of effective cooperation and counteraction to external aggression.The purpose of the article is to analyze the current approach to the military conflict and to consider the conceptual security frameworkfor the formation of Ukraine’s development strategy for reliable protection and successful military development of our state.The history of military associations dives deep into time. The tradition of just war has changed over time, and there has been adesire to impose practical restrictions on war. First of all, strategic leaders, who define large-scale military policy, must control the trainingand preparation of operational plans for national armed forces, deeply rooted in the principles of just war. The worldview of thestrategist is as follows:1. Determination of the stimulus;2. Formulation of interests;3. Evaluation of information;4. Identification of strategic factors;5. Selection of key factors;6. Formulation of strategy.The strategy requires a dynamic approach and the use of the following tools:– change of methods and / or means;– compress the goal;– adjust the strategy;– supplement resources;– reduce the goal and increase funds to achieve it;
 – misinformation, bluff;– modification of the purpose.NATO’s Strategic Concept 2010 “Active Participation, Modern Defense” presents NATO’s three most important tasks – collectivedefense, crisis management and security through cooperation.NATO pays special attention to assistance:– in carrying out democratic reforms;– modernizing defense institutions to make them transparent and accountable;– developing the capacity of Partner countries’ armed forces to work with NATO forces;– cope with natural disasters;– in the development of scientific and technical cooperation.Modern means of implementing strategic approaches and the strategic concept of the NATO bloc, as well as the benefits of joi -ning NATO for Ukraine, emphasize the need for a transition to cosmopolitan thinking and legal application in the context of modernpolitical and economical changes and the COVID-19 pandemic.

ARMED FORCES OF KAZAKHSTAN IN MODERN CONDITIONS

Relevance of the topic is determined by the present situation of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the system of complicated international relations, challenges and threats to its security. For modern Kazakhstan is of particular importance to define and develop an effective military doctrine corresponding to modern geopolitical realities. To do this, it is necessary to determine the fundamental concepts of military organizational development, military strategy and art, to determine the primary priorities of military organizational development and the main vectors of promising directions for the development of the Armed Forces of Kazakhstan. The geopolitical position of the Republic of Kazakhstan obliges to have well-trained, mobile, highly technically equipped Armed Forces capable of responding in a timely manner to any challenges and threats. Kazakhstan has chosen the path of creating a professional Army. The basis of the procedure for passing military service was the career growth scheme of military personnel, fixed periods of stay in a certain position and in a certain place, as well as a planned rotation of staff and military posts. Each officer should be well aware of the prospect of his military service.

МОДЕЛЮВАННЯ ПРОЦЕСУ РОЗВИТКУ ВІЙСЬКОВОЇ ОСВІТИ В УКРАЇНІ: ПРИНЦИПИ ТА ПІДХОДИ ДО СТАНДАРТИЗАЦІЇ

Introduction. The process of the military education professionalization politic ensuring, that oriented to military education institutionalization, realization need considering the principles and approaches to military education standardization that directed to program documents (such branch frame of qualifications), in which will determined basic requirements to professional training of the officers and military specialists.Purpose. Analyze the basic principles and approaches to standardization of the military education in Ukraine in context of it development process modeling. Methods. The system of general scientific and special methods of theoretical and empirical research (analysis of scientific literature, systematization and generalization of materials, logic and comparative, content analysis) was used in order to realize the article purpose. Results. The article deals with the methodological aspects of the military education in Ukraine development process modeling on the basic of contemporary principles and approaches to standardization that using in state-members of NATO. There are accented attention to necessity to implementation and active using of those principles and approaches in the process of the Ukraine military education system improvement. The link of conceptual models of the military education development with the frame documents, which is directed to the producing and standing of the officers and military specialists professional training qualification, is demonstrated. Originality. Adapted model accent attention to importantly of the institutional and normative ensuring the military education system development process, professionalization of it. For realization the main ways and acts that have a link with institutional and normative ensuring the military education system development in Ukraine, must be develop and implement some program framework documents, which demonstrate contemporary approach to military education system development on the state-members of NATO practice. In fact, is need formalization in frame of program framework document the strategy of the planning conceptual principles and military education system functionality on the base of the determined qualification requirements. In aspect of the military education development modeling take place accent to concrete results, which is goal of the officers and military specialists training process, and results of servicing in army. Conclusion. The system of military education must orients to concrete needs and tasks in functional sphere, contently of the professional training and officers’ qualification level arising for ensuring the service in army and structures of military management. This is basic criteria of the assessment of the military education system results.

ТЕОРЕТИКО-МЕТОДИЧНІ ЗАСАДИ НАВЧАННЯ ВІЙСЬКОВО-СПЕЦІАЛЬНИХ ДИСЦИПЛІН МАГІСТРІВ ВІЙСЬКОВО-СОЦІАЛЬНОГО УПРАВЛІННЯ:ЕКСПЕРИМЕНТАЛЬНЕ ДОСЛІДЖДЕННЯ

Introduction. Experimental research was reviewed and way of a scertaining and generating experiment was exposed concerning introducing technique of development of military and special competence of master sofmilitary and social management based onthe grounds of the content presentation in the process of teaching military and special disciplines. Purpose. The a imof generating experiment was toexamine effective nessof the teaching military special disciplinest echniqueof masters of military and social management. Methods. Authenticity of the got results is well-proven by means of methods of mathematical statistics.Results. The article presents tages of organizing and conducting a pedagogical experiment and the resultsof development of military and special competence of mastersof military and social management base don the ground sofve rsatilestructural and functional techniqueof a content presentation in the process of teaching military and special disciplines. Aiming to very fying maturitylevel of military and special competen ceofmastersof military and social management, we haved evelopedan experimental research program. In 2016-2019 ascert aining and generating experiments were conducted in the National Defence University of Ukrainen amed after Ivan Cherniakhovskyi, the National Academy of the National Guardof Ukraine, the National Academy of the State Border Guard Service of Ukrainen amed after Bohdan Khmelnytskyi. Ascer taining experiment in cluded the following stages: – determinati on of accuracy; – determination of the currentstate of the teaching military and special disciplines of masters of military and social management; – development of researchhypo thesis.In the control groupeducation of the future master sof military and socialmanage ment was conducted under traditional technique of teaching military and special disciplines whilein the experimental groupanin novation techniqueof the content presentationin the processof teaching military and special disciplines was applied. There sultsofex perimental research of special military competence development in the process of teaching military and special disciplines for student of ficersin the higher military educational in stitutions were summarized; a level of maturity of special military competence of masters of military-social management was analysed. There sults of generating experiment in the control and experimental groups in dicated advantages of military and special competencete chnique effectiveness of the student off icersin the experimental group. Originalit. Results of the experimental researchindicate that in troduction of the applied techniqueduring educational processin the higher military educational in stitutions improve smaturity of military and special competence of masters of military and social management. Conclusion Experimental study confirmsourhypothesisthat effectiveness of professionalactivity of masters of military and socialmanagementis higherif directive military and special competence development basedon competent approach and introduction of the applied techniquein to the educational processin the higher military educational in stitutionstakeplace.

ПІДГОТОВКА ОФІЦЕРІВ-ЛІДЕРІВ ДЕСАНТНО-ШТУРМОВИХ ВІЙСЬК: ДОСВІД США ДЛЯ УКРАЇНИ

The article considers and analyzes the current training of officer-leaders, as well as the formation and development of leadership qualities of officers of the US Army and universities of Ukraine. The main differences in the training of a military leader are revealed, the order of formation and development of the leadership position of Assault Troops officers in the US Army is traced, the best practices of military leadership development of future Assault Assault officers are summarized.Based on a comparative analysis of the training of assault officers in the United States and Ukraine, the problematic issues of implementing a system of leadership training in the national system of military education have been identified.

ANALYSIS OF MODERN DEVELOPMENTS OF POLYMERIC MATERIALS WITH THE SPECIFIC TECHNICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The article considers the characteristics of common composite materials. The following have been used for industrial use: carbon plastics – composites based on high-strength carbon fibers, organometallic plastics – allora, thermoplastics – polyester ether ketone and polyphenylene sulfide, fiberglass. By structure, composites are divided into several classes: fibrous, layered, dispersed, compacted and nanocomposites. The main advantage of any composite material is that it can be given the specific technical and technological characteristics. Due to changes in the composition, structure, size of reinforcing elements and technology of materials, the properties of composites can vary widely, from soft, plastic to hard, brittle. The strength of the material depends on the geometric characteristics of the fibers, the greater the ratio of length to diameter, the stronger it is. It is the size of the reinforcing elements that determines the direction of use of the composite, they affect the rheological and structural and mechanical properties of the material. The designed properties determine the reliability of the structure, which is important when using these materials in the development of military, aerospace equipment, weapons.The introduction of innovative technologies for the formation of products from composite materials has simplified the production process and obtained dimensional monolithic structures. This contributed to their introduction in the field of shipbuilding, in particular, in the construction and modernization of submarines, ships and boats. Composite materials, in addition to elements of superstructures and fairings of acoustic antennae, are used to make rudders, stabilizers, propellers, fragments of shaft lines, rocket shafts, fairings for lifting mast devices, compressed air storage tanks, constructions of separate ship warfare and technical means, etc.

UPAYA PEMERINTAH INDONESIA DALAM MENGHADAPI HEGEMONI CHINA DI KAWASAN LAUT CHINA SELATAN PADA PEMERINTAHAN JOKO WIDODO TAHUN 2016 – 2019

China claims Indonesia’s sovereign in Natuna sea, which is located next to South China Sea (SCS). China insists that part of the Natuna sea belongs to China based on Nine-Dash Line map policy which makes it a claim to the South China Sea area. The Nine-Dash Line map was formed based on historical of China’s dynasty. The China’s hegemony is also shown by the islands’ exploration and management in the South China Sea. The conflict between China and Indonesia has been going on for quite a long. It is marked by the China’s actions in sending their fishing vessels to cross the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and doing the illegal fishing in Natuna sea. There are several confrontation issues between China’s vessel and Indonesia sea in Joko Widodo’s reign, but they are undaunted. They show implicit support to Indonesia’s sovereignty. This research used descriptive method to describe the conflicts in the South China Sea. There were 2 (two) concepts and 1 (one) theory in this research. Those were the Concept of National Interest, the Concept of Sovereignty and Geopolitical Theory. The results of this reasearch showed that the government in Joko Widodo’s reign has attempts in many ways in the face of China’s hegemony that was built in South China Sea, especially in Natuna Sea area. The attempts included the President's assertive demeanor by visiting Natuna, also holding the military training and development. In fact, Indonesia continued its diplomatic attempt in carrying out its role as an honest broker to the South China Sea conflict.

Serving Tatars in the frontier development of Western Siberia in the XVII century

This article analyzes the poorly studied in Russian historiography question of the role of serving Tatars in the process of addition and development of Western Siberia. The object of this research is the Siberian serving Tatars “Yomışlı Tatarlar” as a special group of serving people. The subject of this research is the contribution of the serving Tatars to the frontier development of Siberia in the XVII century. Based on the previously elaborated methodology - the phase of development of the Siberian frontier, the author highlights the point and transitional stages characteristic to the initial period of colonization. It is noted that at these stages, the consolidation strategy for the recently annexed territories was the erection of fortresses as the benchmarks. The author provides various evidence to prove the significance of contribution of serving Tatars to the military and economic development of Siberian territories at the early stages of the frontier. Records on the number of serving Tatars in the garrisons of the first Russian cities during the XVII century, which demonstrate that their share of in the initial period of frontier development of Western Siberia comprised approximately one third of the military staff, are of special importance. Leaning on different types of sources, the article describes active participation of serving Tatars in construction of Russian fortresses and development of attached territories. The novelty of this research lies in the formulated conclusions that broaden the knowledge on the history of serving population in this period, and give a new perspective upon the role of serving Tatars “Yomışlı Tatarlar” in the process of colonization of Western Siberia.

Knowledge in and of military operations: enriching the reflexive gaze in critical research on the military

ABSTRACT This article analyses the recent military ‘turn to reflexivity’ in relation to current reflexive commitments in critical studies of the military. With reflexivity, military organizations have begun to inquire into its own role as a producer and user of knowledge, and into the constitutive effects of knowledge in and on the world. A reflexive concern with the conditions and effects of knowledge has thus made militaries sensitive to the epistemic dimensions of military force. The broader socio-political implications of the military’s attention to epistemics, in terms of how knowledge may constitute and bring into being novel socio-political orderings, make it an urgent task to explore this development in relation to the reflexive state of critical research on the military. The first argument that I make in the article is that existing reflexive commitments in critical military studies are conceptually able to target scholarly-military epistemic interactions and the constitutive effects thereof, but less able to address epistemic distinctions in terms of how knowledge is produced and how different conditions shape the content of knowledge. This, however, is what is needed to critically address the military reflexive development. Based on this, I argue secondly that a fruitful broadening and enriching of the reflexive gaze may be achieved by further taking reflexivity in a Bourdieusian direction – a move that ultimately works complementary to existing reflexive commitments in critical military studies.

Forging a Pure Military Identity: The Rise of Jurchen Heritage in Northeast Asia (15th–17th Century)

AbstractProminent studies of the Qing dynasty's military evolution in the field of comparative military history, which is heavily dependent on the binary conception of “West–China,” have failed to present the early military heritage of the dynasty. Unlike previous studies, this paper aims to find a new voice for the early Qing military inheritance, as a reflection of past West–China comparative studies that have continued to discriminate between Western and Chinese military merits and demerits and to ignore the early Qing military approach. By presenting the economic and military interconnections between the Manchu (the Jianzhou Jurchens, the Jianzhou confederation, and Nurhaci), Ming, and Chosŏn, this article reveals that early economic and military development through border trade, tributary trade, and predatory behaviors enabled the Manchus to establish the Later Jin and Qing states. Understanding early Manchu military history helps us put forward an important but less studied military heritage of Qing.