Quantum Key Distribution Method Research Articles

Quantum Cryptography: Enhancing Security in Quantum Computing Environments

When it comes to protecting data, quantum security is a huge step forward, especially in settings with quantum computers. The development of quantum technologies makes standard encryption methods more open to attacks from quantum computers that can use their computing power to break common encryption protocols. This essay looks into the basic ideas of quantum cryptography, with a focus on Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) as a key part of safe communication. Quantum key distribution (QKD) uses quantum physics ideas like superposition and entanglement to help two people make a shared secret key that can't be hacked. The paper talks about different QKD methods, like BB84 and E91, and looks at how they work and what security promises they offer. We look at the problems that come up with real-world uses, like flawed devices and influence from the surroundings, which can affect how accurate quantum states are.

Quantum Key Distribution with Displaced Thermal States.

Secret key exchange relies on the creation of correlated signals, serving as the raw resource for secure communication. Thermal states exhibit Hanbury Brown and Twiss correlations, which offer a promising avenue for generating such signals. In this paper, we present an experimental implementation of a central broadcast thermal-state quantum key distribution (QKD) protocol in the microwave region. Our objective is to showcase a straightforward method of QKD utilizing readily available broadcasting equipment. Unlike conventional approaches to thermal-state QKD, we leverage displaced thermal states. These states enable us to share the output of a thermal source among Alice, Bob, and Eve via both waveguide channels and free space. Through measurement and conversion into bit strings, our protocol produces key-ready bit strings without the need for specialized equipment. By harnessing the inherent noise in thermal broadcasts, our setup facilitates the recovery of distinct bit strings by all parties involved.

A Multi-Path QKD Algorithm with Multiple Segments

Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) provides unconditional peer-to-peer security based on the principles of quantum physics. By utilizing relay nodes, the security of QKD can be extended over longer distances. However, the introduction of relay nodes brings both security and communication success rates issues. To tackle those issues we propose an enhanced multi-path scheme. The key features of our proposal are as follows: 1. By taking the reliability of relay nodes as one of the algorithm inputs,making the scheme more suitable for partially trusted QKD (PTQKD) networks. 2. By using Multi-Segment Multi-Path approach increases the difficulty for attackers to obtain complete key information and improves the security of PTQKD. 3. The adaptive routing algorithm generates a sufficient number of diverse paths based on node contribution rate, key freshness, and reliability. We conducted a theoretical analysis of the algorithm,and simulation results on PTQKD demonstrate that our method outperforms traditional QKD methods in terms of security and transmission success rate. This advancement has the potential to enhance the adoption of QKD networks.

QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS

Secure data exchange over the network is ensured by the requirements of confidentiality, integrity and availability of information. To meet these requirements, sent data is encrypted on the sending side, and the received information is decrypted on the receiving side. Transmitted message is encrypted according to rules determined by the algorithm and key. Crypto security of encrypted information depends on the key length. Among the encryption algorithms, there are algorithms with a symmetric (private) key and with an asymmetric (public) key. Despite all the advantages of a private key, asymmetric keys are used to deliver it from one user to another (key distribution). However, high-performance quantum computers are capable to decrypt intercepted data. Therefore, modern cryptographic systems use quantum key distribution method. The idea of using quantum bits was proposed in 1970 by S. Wiesner. In 1984, Ch. Bennett and G. Brassard proposed the BB84 protocol. The use of «entangled » quanta for systems with quantum key distribution was offerred in 1991 by A. Eckert. All modern quantum cryptography systems are based on these above-mentioned protocols.

A Segment-Based Multipath Distribution Method in Partially-Trusted Relay Quantum Networks

As a promising application of quantum information technology, Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) can provide information-theoretically secure key exchange for adjacent communication parties. To achieve long-distance secure communication and scale expansion against inherent channel loss, trusted relays, which are assumed to be absolutely secure, are introduced into QKD networks. However, in practice, trusted relays may be compromised by attacks from ubiquitous eavesdroppers even protected by powerful hardware. Thus, how to ensure the security of end-to-end key distribution in partially-trusted relay QKD networks with the coexistence of trusted relays and untrusted relays becomes a challenging but urgent problem to be solved. To address this critical problem, in this article, we design a segment-based multipath key distribution method. The basic idea of the method is to maximize the security of the end-toend key distribution through the segment-based multipath key distribution. Under the premise of security level requirements, we further propose a flexible key reconstruction scheme to improve the efficiency of key distribution and obtain available secret keys as many as possible. The extensive simulations are conducted and the results reveal that our method significantly outperforms the traditional multipath QKD method in terms of both security and efficiency.

Quantum Noise Secured Terahertz Communications

The terahertz communications display an important role in high-speed wireless communications, the security threat from the eavesdroppers in the terahertz communications has been gaining attention recently. The true randomness in the physical layer can ensure one-time-pad encryption for secured terahertz communications, however, physical layer security schemes like the quantum key distribution methods suffer from device imperfections that limit the desirable signal rate and link distance. Herein, we present the quantum noise secured terahertz wireless communications with photonic terahertz signal generation schemes. With the high-order diffusion algorithms, the signal is masked by the quantum noise ciphers to the eavesdroppers and cannot be detected because the inevitable randomness by quantum noise measurement will cause physical measurement errors. In the experiment, we demonstrate 16 Gbits <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">-1</sup> quantum noise secured terahertz wireless communications with the conventional optical communication realms and devices, operating at 300 GHz terahertz frequency. This quantum noise secured terahertz communication approach is a significant step toward high-security wireless communications.

Secret-Key Provisioning With Collaborative Routing in Partially-Trusted-Relay-based Quantum-Key-Distribution-Secured Optical Networks

Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a promising technology that provides proven unconditional security based on fundamentals of quantum physics, especially for point-to-point communications. It could be applied in large-scale optical networks for long-distance key provisioning mainly by three relaying methods: quantum-repeater-based QKD, trusted-relay-based QKD, and measurement-device-independent QKD (MDI-QKD). However, quantum-repeater-based QKD is still under study because of the immature technologies such as the preliminary quantum memory. The trusted-relay-based QKD is vulnerable since insecurity of non-ideal single-photon sources and detectors cannot be ignored in practical applications. On the other hand, for MDI-QKD, there exists a limitation on its key rate under long-distance communications. According to these limitations, embedding protocols like MDI-QKD into the existing trusted-relay-based QKD secured optical networks (QKD-ON) with usage of untrusted relays is a promising key-provisioning scheme. In this paper, we study such partially-trusted relay scenarios and focus on its routing of keys in different kinds of typical network topologies. A partially-trusted-relay-based QKD method is described, which can allow a pair of optical nodes sharing secret keys under the coexistence of trusted relays and untrusted relays. The secret-key provisioning with collaborative routing ( <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">SKP-CR</i> ) algorithm is proposed to search for the optimal key-relay routing path. We perform the simulations with different proportion of trusted relays versus untrusted relays, initial secret keys in the quantum key pools (QKPs), and traffic load. The simulations verify that the <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">SKP-CR</i> algorithm can significantly outperform the conventional trusted-relay-based scheme in terms of key-distribution success rate with an improvement of up to <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">62%</i> with a mesh topology.

10-Gb/s data transmission using optical physical layer encryption and quantum key distribution

A 10-Gb/s data transmission using the optical physical layer encryption and quantum key distribution (QKD) is developed. The physical layer encryption basing on the spectrum phase encoding technology, and the quantum key distribution relying on optical intensity modulation (IM) Y-00 cipher, are together performed to secure optical transmissions at 10 Gb/s. Especially, We propose a quantum key distribution method in which the encryption key generated at a update rate of up to 10 MHz is used for the parameters of the physical layer encryption with the spectral phase encoding. Compared with traditional quantum key distribution, our key rate is out of reach. A 10-Gb/s secure prototype is developed basing on this technique, which is experimentally applied in the 20-channel wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) network over 100 km fiber. The experimental results show that this method can ensure reliable transmission of cooperative users and prevent information from eavesdropping. The power penalty caused by data encryption is less than 3 dB for improving security of the data transmission. Furthermore, the bit error rate (BER) is analyzed, a BER above 0.48 for eavesdropper is verified.

Perfect Reconciliation in Quantum Key Distribution with Order-Two Frames

We present an error reconciliation method for Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) that corrects 100% of errors generated in regular binary frames transmitted over a noisy quantum channel regardless of the quantum channel error rate. In a previous investigation, we introduced a novel distillation QKD algorithm whose secret key rate descends linearly with respect to the channel error rate. Now, as the main achievement of this work, we demonstrate an improved algorithm capable of retaining almost all the secret information enclosed in the regular binary frames. Remarkably, this technique increases quadratically the secret key rate as a function of the double matching detection events and doubly quadratically in the number of the quantum pulses. Furthermore, this reconciliation method opens up the opportunity to use less attenuated quantum pulses, would allow greater QKD distances at drastically increased secret key rate. Since our method can be implemented as a software update, we hope that quantum key distribution technology would be fast deployed over global data networks in the quantum era.

Beyond the Limits of Shannon's Information in Quantum Key Distribution.

We present a new post-processing method for Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) that raises cubically the secret key rate in the number of double matching detection events. In Shannon’s communication model, information is prepared at Alice’s side, and it is then intended to pass it over a noisy channel. In our approach, secret bits do not rely in Alice’s transmitted quantum bits but in Bob’s basis measurement choices. Therefore, measured bits are publicly revealed, while bases selections remain secret. Our method implements sifting, reconciliation, and amplification in a unique process, and it just requires a round iteration; no redundancy bits are sent, and there is no limit in the correctable error percentage. Moreover, this method can be implemented as a post-processing software into QKD technologies already in use.

Security of the decoy state method for quantum key distribution

Quantum cryptography or, more precisely, quantum key distribution (QKD), is one of the advanced areas in the field of quantum technologies. The confidentiality of keys distributed with the use of QKD protocols is guaranteed by the fundamental laws of quantum mechanics. This paper is devoted to the decoy state method, a countermeasure against vulnerabilities caused by the use of coherent states of light for QKD protocols whose security is proved under the assumption of single-photon states. We give a formal security proof of the decoy state method against all possible attacks. We compare two widely known attacks on multiphoton pulses: photon-number splitting and beam splitting. Finally, we discuss the equivalence of polarization and phase coding.

Secure optical communication using a quantum alarm

Optical fibre networks are advancing rapidly to meet growing traffic demands. Security issues, including attack management, have become increasingly important for optical communication networks because of the vulnerabilities associated with tapping light from optical fibre links. Physical layer security often requires restricting access to channels and periodic inspections of link performance. In this paper, we report how quantum communication techniques can be utilized to detect a physical layer attack. We present an efficient method for monitoring the physical layer security of a high-data-rate classical optical communication network using a modulated continuous-variable quantum signal. We describe the theoretical and experimental underpinnings of this monitoring system and the monitoring accuracy for different monitored parameters. We analyse its performance for both unamplified and amplified optical links. The technique represents a novel approach for applying quantum signal processing to practical optical communication networks and compares well with classical monitoring methods. We conclude by discussing the challenges facing its practical application, its differences with respect to existing quantum key distribution methods, and its usage in future secure optical transport network planning.

Continuous-Variable Quantum Computing and its Applications to Cryptography

We propose a quantum cryptography based on an algorithm for determining a function using continuous-variable entangled states. The security of our cryptography is based on the Ekert 1991 protocol, which uses an entangled state. Eavesdropping destroys the entangled state. Alice selects a secret function from the very large number of possible function types. Bob’s aim is to determine the selected function (a key) without an eavesdropper learning it. In order for both Alice and Bob to be able to select the same function classically, in the worst case Bob requires a very large number of queries to Alice. In the quantum case however, Bob requires just a single query. By measuring the single entangled state, which is sent to him by Alice, Bob can obtain the function that Alice has selected. This quantum key distribution method is faster than the very large number of classical queries that would be required in the classical case.

Emulation of up-conversion based quantum key distribution scheme using active pump-controlled basis selection and adaptive thresholding

We emulate a method for quantum key distribution (QKD) that employs up-conversion detection. The scheme uses differential quadrature phase shift modulation and actively chooses the measurement basis by applying a dynamic phase-shift on the pump of the up-conversion interaction. The QKD rate of the quantum-hacking resistant system over an emulated 7.5 km marine-like turbulent channel is evaluated including the impact of thresholding the received data so as to ignore signals that are below a tolerable signal-to-noise ratio. The emulated system is well suited to operate over marine free space optical links coupled to single mode fiber.

Optimal Low Density Parity Check Matrices to Correct Quantum Key Errors for QKD

In this paper, the parity-check matrices that can be used in low density parity check (LDPC) based error correction method for quantum key distribution are analyzed. The quantum key distribution system has inevitable errors in sifted key that must be corrected by an error correction algorithm to create a secure key. In this analysis, 1000-bit sifted keys are divided into 50 parts. The algorithm creates 50 syndromes corresponding to each part by multiplying 10 × 20 bit parity-check matrices. The algorithm sends the generated syndrome to the other side, which also divides the sifted key into 50 parts, creates a syndrome from each part, and compares with the received syndrome. If the syndromes are different, these sifted key parts are discarded. However, there may be situations where different parts may have the same syndromes. Therefore, it is necessary to find such an optimal matrix that removes the probability of getting the same syndromes at different parts of the sifted key.

Quantum Key Distillation Using Binary Frames

We introduce a new integral method for Quantum Key Distribution to perform sifting, reconciliation and amplification processes to establish a cryptographic key through the use of binary matrices called frames which are capable to increase quadratically the secret key rate. Since the eavesdropper has no control on Bob’s double matching detection events, our protocol is not vulnerable to the Intercept and Resend (IR) attack nor the Photon Number Splitting (PNS) attack. The method can be implemented with the usual optical Bennett–Brassard ( B B 84 ) equipment allowing strong pulses in the quantum regime.

Fast and Simple Qubit-Based Synchronization for Quantum Key Distribution

We propose Qubit4Sync, a synchronization method for Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) setups, based on the same qubits exchanged during the protocol and without requiring additional hardware other than the one necessary to prepare and measure the quantum states. Our approach introduces a new cross-correlation algorithm achieving the lowest computational complexity, to our knowledge, for high channel losses. We tested the robustness of our scheme in a real QKD implementation.

Improving Error Correction Stage and Expanding the Final Key using Dynamic Linear-feedback Shift Register in Sarg04 Protocol

The mechanism of quantum mechanics is considered as the principal method of quantum key distribution for transmitting a cryptographic key between users in unconditionally secure communication. In this paper, simulation and enhancement of the performance of SARG04 protocol have been done in terms of error correction stage using multiparity rather than single parity. In addition, the suitable length of subblock was selected depending on the values of quantum bit error rate and round number. Dynamic linear-feedback shift register circuits have been used to extend the final key. These circuits are dynamically generated by the final key. A unique linear circuit is created for each generated key.

The Impact of Quantum Computing on Present Cryptography

The aim of this paper is to elucidate the implications of quantum computing in present cryptography and to introduce the reader to basic post-quantum algorithms. In particular the reader can delve into the following subjects: present cryptographic schemes (symmetric and asymmetric), differences between quantum and classical computing, challenges in quantum computing, quantum algorithms (Shor’s and Grover’s), public key encryption schemes affected, symmetric schemes affected, the impact on hash functions, and post quantum cryptography. Specifically, the section of Post-Quantum Cryptography deals with different quantum key distribution methods and mathematicalbased solutions, such as the BB84 protocol, lattice-based cryptography, multivariate-based cryptography, hash-based signatures and code-based cryptography.

A one-time pad encryption method combining full-phase image encryption and hiding

A one-time pad encryption method combining full-phase image encryption and hiding is proposed. Firstly, original images are encoded in the phase and encrypted by phase keys loaded on the phase-only liquid crystal spatial light modulator, where the phase keys can be distributed using a quantum key distribution method. Subsequently, a host image is introduced to produce a reference wave, and overlap with an object wave to form an interferogram. Finally, based on phase-shifting interferometry, we can achieve the above encrypted image hiding. Both the simulation and experiment research demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed method, meanwhile the key and the encrypted image can be changed randomly, so the proposed system reveals the high flexibility, anti-attack ability and can be used to implement the one-time pad to achieve absolute secure transmission with the quantum key distribution method. Moreover, system security will be improved due to the fact that encryption information hidden in the host image can be treated as background noise, which does not attract the attention of the attacker.