Large Impactors Research Articles

The primordial collisional history of Vesta: crater saturation, surface evolution and survival of the basaltic crust

The Dawn mission recently visited the asteroid 4 Vesta and the observations performed by the spacecraft revealed more pieces of the intriguing mosaic of its history. Among the first results obtained by the Dawn mission was the confirmation of the link between the howardite–eucrite–diogenite (HED) group of meteorites and Vesta. This link implies that Vesta was one of the first objects to form in the Solar System and that the differentiation of the asteroid likely completed before the formation of Jupiter. As a consequence, the bombardment triggered by the formation and migration of the giant planet, the Jovian Early Bombardment (JEB), contributed to the collisional evolution of the asteroid at a time where most of its interior was still molten. This work explores the implications of the JEB for the evolution of the primordial Vesta, in particular in terms of crater saturation, crustal excavation and surface erosion. Both scenarios assuming the planetesimals having formed in a quiescent or a turbulent nebula were explored and both primordial and collisionally evolved size–frequency distributions were considered. The results obtained indicate that, if the basaltic surface of Vesta was already formed, the JEB would saturate it with craters and could erode it to depths that vary from hundreds of meters to tens of kilometres. In the latter cases, the surface erosion caused by the JEB would be comparable with the thickness of the eucritic and diogenitic layers of Vesta. In the cases where the global surface erosion is limited, however, large impactors, if too abundant, can excavate the whole crust and extract significant quantities of material from the vestan mantle, incompatible with the present understanding of HED meteorites. This appears to be the case if the impacting planetesimals formed in a turbulent nebula and Jupiter migrated by 0.5AU or more. Globally, the results obtained suggest that the scenarios where the planetesimal formed in a quiescent nebula and Jupiter underwent a modest migration (i.e. up to 0.5AU) are the most consistent with our understanding of Vesta, even if the cases of planetesimals formed in a turbulent nebula with Jupiter undergoing limited (i.e. about 0.25AU) or no migration cannot be ruled out. Recent results on the differentiation of the asteroid, however, raised the possibility that Vesta originally possessed a now-lost undifferentiated crust. In this case, the favoured scenarios would be those where the planetesimals formed in a quiescent nebula and Jupiter underwent a more significant migration (i.e. between 0.5AU and 1AU).

Dynamical and collisional constraints on a stochastic late veneer on the terrestrial planets

Given their tendency to be incorporated into the core during differentiation, the highly-siderophile elements (HSEs) in Earth’s mantle are thought to have been accreted as a “late veneer” after the end of the giant impact phase. Bottke et al. (Bottke, W.F., Walker, R.J., Day, J.M.D., Nesvorny, D., Elkins-Tanton, L. [2010]. Science 330, 1527) proposed that the large Earth-to-Moon HSE abundance ratio can be explained if the late veneer was characterized by large (D=1000–4000km) impactors. Here we simulate the evolution of the terrestrial planets during a stochastic late veneer phase from the end of accretion until the start of the late heavy bombardment ∼500Myr later. We show that a late veneer population of 0.05M⊕ dominated by large (D>1000km) bodies naturally delivers a ∼0.01M⊕ veneer to Earth, consistent with geochemical constraints. The eccentricities and inclinations of the terrestrial planets are excited by close encounters with the largest late veneer bodies. We find the best agreement with their post-veneer orbits if either (a) the terrestrial planets’ pre-veneer angular momentum deficit AMD0 was less than about half of the current one AMDnow, or (b) AMD0⩽AMDnow and the veneer was limited to smaller (Dmax⩽2000km) bodies. Veneer impacts on Venus, Earth and Mars were mostly accretionary but on Mercury and the Moon they were mostly erosive. In ∼20% of simulations an energetic impact occurred that could have removed ⩾25% of Mercury’s mass, thereby increasing its iron mass fraction. We show that, due to the erosive nature of larger impacts, the Moon cannot accrete any material from objects larger than 500–1000km. The large Earth-to-Moon HSE abundance ratio is naturally explained if the late veneer included large impactors (D≳500–1000km) regardless of their size distribution, as long as most of Earth’s veneer came from large bodies. The spin angular moment imparted by stochastic late veneer impacts was far in excess of the current ones for Mercury and Venus, meaning that their post-veneer spin rates were much faster. The late veneer, if it included large impactors, was an accretionary phase for Venus, Earth and Mars but an erosive phase for Mercury and the Moon.

Atmospheric erosion and replenishment induced by impacts upon the Earth and Mars during a heavy bombardment

Consequences of a heavy bombardment for the atmospheres of Earth and Mars are investigated with a stochastic model. The main result is the dominance of the accumulation. The atmospheric pressure is strongly increasing both for Earth and Mars in the course of an enhanced bombardment. The effect of atmospheric erosion is found to be minor, regarding escape during meteorite entry, in the expanding vapor plume, and ejection due to free-surface motion. The initial atmospheric surface pressure if comparable to the modern value turns out as a less important additive constant of the final pressure. Impactor retention and atmospheric erosion are parametrized in terms of scaling laws, compatible with recent numerical simulations. The dependence on impactor size, atmospheric and planetary parameters is analyzed among alternative models and numerical results. The stochastic model is fed with the net replenishment originating from impactor material and the loss of preexisting atmospheric gas. Major input parameters are the total cumulative impactor mass and the relative mass of atmophile molecules in comets and asteroids. Input size distributions of the impactor ensemble correspond to presently observed main belt asteroids and KBOs. Velocity distributions are taken from dynamical simulations for the Nice model. Depending on the composition of large cometary impactors, the Earth could acquire a more massive atmosphere, a few bars in terms of surface pressure, mostly as CO and CO2. For Mars accumulation of 1–4 bars of CO and CO2 requires an asteroidal ‘late veneer’ of the order of 1024g containing 2% atmophiles.

A space mission to detect imminent Earth impactors

One of the goals of NEO surveys is to discover Earth impactors before they hit. How much warning time is desirable depends on the size of the impactors: for the larger ones more time is needed to mount effective mitigation measures. Initially, NEO surveys were aimed at large impactors, that can have significant global effects; however, their typical time scale is orders of magnitude larger than human lifetime. At the other extreme, monthly and annual events, liberating energies of the order of 1 to 10 kilotons, are immaterial as a threat to mankind, not justifying substantial expenditure on them. Intermediate events are of more concern: in the megatons range, timescales are of the order of centuries, and the damage can be substantial. A classical example is the Tunguska event, in which a body with a diameter of about 30 to 50 m liberated about 5 megatons in the atmosphere, devastating 2 000 square kilometers of Siberian forest.

The effect of shock loading on the survival of plant seeds

Meteorite and asteroid impacts into planet Earth seem rare but over the lifetime of our planet have been relatively frequent. Such collisions (involving very large impactors) have been blamed for mass extinctions during Earth’s history. It has also been postulated that impactors could carry life with them throughout the universe and seed our planet. This is the basis of the theory of panspermia (‘life everywhere’) and suggests that life could be spread throughout the universe by ‘piggy-backing’ on inter-planetary bodies, e.g. asteroids, which then collide with other planets, thus seeding them with life. The shock behaviour of organic matter has an important role to play in helping to inform the feasibility of such theories. An example of a model carrier for life in seeding mechanisms is the plant seed. Here we present the development of an experimental technique in which plant seed samples are shock-loaded and their viability subsequently assessed post-shock. This technique was tested on Lepidium sativum (cress) seed samples. Experimentally, shocked seeds showed positive viability in all tests performed until shocked with a maximum peak shock pressure of ca. 0.8GPa. These results suggest it is unlikely that the plant seeds tested would be able to survive the extreme conditions on an asteroid during impact, but may be able to survive shock waves that would be generated from such collisions when existing on a planetary body.

Late-stage impacts and the orbital and thermal evolution of Tethys

An inferred ancient episode of heating and deformation on Tethys has been attributed to its passage through a 3:2 resonance with Dione (Chen, E.M.A., Nimmo, F. [2008]. Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, 19203). The satellites encounter, and are trapped into, the e-Dione resonance before reaching the e-Tethys resonance, limiting the degree to which Tethys is tidally heated. However, for an initial Dione eccentricity >0.016, Tethys’ eccentricity becomes large enough to generate the inferred heat flow via tidal dissipation. While capture into the e-Dione resonance is easy, breaking the resonance (to allow Tethys to evolve to its current state) is very difficult. The resonance is stable even for large initial Dione eccentricities, and is not broken by perturbations from nearby resonances (e.g. the Rhea–Dione 5:3 resonance). Our preferred explanation is that the Tethyan impactor which formed the younger Odysseus impact basin also broke the 3:2 resonance. Simultaneously satisfying the observed basin size and the requirement to break the resonance requires a large (≈250km diameter) and slow (≈0.5km/s) impactor, possibly a saturnian satellite in a nearby crossing orbit with Tethys. Late-stage final impacts of this kind are a common feature of satellite formation models (Canup, R.M., Ward, W.R. [2006]. Nature 441, 834–839).

Clearance Adjustable Impact Damper for Flexure Mechanism

An impact damper dissipates energy from mechanical vibration by making use of collision energy rather than viscous and frictional forces. It works successfully without scarifying the merits given by a frictionless flexure guide or mechanism. In the past, the authors investigated the dynamic vibrational behaviors of a displacement amplification mechanism by using two types of impact damper, namely, loading- and external-type impact damper, for showing the effectiveness of employing impact dampers for the vibration control of a flexure mechanism. In conclusions, the initial setting for the clearance between an impactor and object is very dominant and very sensitive to the damping performance. In this study, the authors have developed an impact damper which can adjust the clearance between the impactor and object by means of a piezoelectric bimorph actuator. With the ability to adjust the clearance, we have accurately examined the influential results from various contributing factors, for example, the natural frequency ratio between the damper and displacement amplification mechanism, better than the results for a normal impact damper. It is clarified that a large impactor mass gives a short settling time under the same frequency ratio and that a slightly smaller value than 0.5 is the best value for the frequency ratio. Finally, we have also studied not only the open-loop performance but also the closed-loop performance of the system. The damper can work in both open-loop and closed-loop system, but is more remarkable for an open-loop system.

Variability in the small crater population on Callisto

Previous analyses of Galileo images showed the small (≈1 km and smaller) crater population on Callisto to be lower than had been expected (Moore, J.M. et al. [1999]. Icarus 140, 294–312; Bierhaus E.B. et al. [2000]. Lunar Planet. Sci. 31. Abstract #1996). In this paper we examine the small crater population using high-resolution imagery from Callisto flybys during Galileo orbits C3, C10, C21, and C30, including several C30 regions not previously analyzed. Our findings confirm that most small craters are depleted relative to a presumed equilibrium of R = 0.22, and we find that there is significant variability in the small crater counts. While some of the variability in the small crater population on Callisto can be attributed to secondary cratering, some variability also may be explained by resetting of portions of Callisto’s surface by larger impactors. This is expected where the differential size frequency distribution of the crater production population b < 3 (where b represents the exponent of a differential power-law crater-size distribution), such that large impacts affect a greater planetary surface area than smaller craters.

Predicted and observed magnetic signatures of martian (de)magnetized impact craters

The current morphology of the martian lithospheric magnetic field results from magnetization and demagnetization processes, both of which shaped the planet. The largest martian impact craters, Hellas, Argyre, Isidis and Utopia, are not associated with intense magnetic fields at spacecraft altitude. This is usually interpreted as locally non- or de-magnetized areas, as large impactors may have reset the magnetization of the pre-impact material. We study the effects of impacts on the magnetic field. First, a careful analysis is performed to compute the impact demagnetization effects. We assume that the pre-impact lithosphere acquired its magnetization while cooling in the presence of a global, centered and mainly dipolar magnetic field, and that the subsequent demagnetization is restricted to the excavation area created by large craters, between 50- and 500-km diameter. Depth-to-diameter ratio of the transient craters is set to 0.1, consistent with observed telluric bodies. Associated magnetic field is computed between 100- and 500-km altitude. For a single-impact event, the maximum magnetic field anomaly associated with a crater located over the magnetic pole is maximum above the crater. A 200-km diameter crater presents a close-to-1-nT magnetic field anomaly at 400-km altitude, while a 100-km diameter crater has a similar signature at 200-km altitude. Second, we statistically study the 400-km altitude Mars Global Surveyor magnetic measurements modelled locally over the visible impact craters. This approach offers a local estimate of the confidence to which the magnetic field can be computed from real measurements. We conclude that currently craters down to a diameter of 200 km can be characterized. There is a slight anti-correlation of −0.23 between magnetic field intensity and impact crater diameters, although we show that this result may be fortuitous. A complete low-altitude magnetic field mapping is needed. New data will allow predicted weak anomalies above craters to be better characterized, and will bring new constraints on the timing of the martian dynamo and on Mars’ evolution.

Impact cratering records of the mid-sized, icy saturnian satellites

Resolution of Voyager 1 and 2 images of the mid-sized, icy saturnian satellites was generally not much better than 1 km per line pair, except for a few, isolated higher resolution images. Therefore, analyses of impact crater distributions were generally limited to diameters ( D) of tens of kilometers. Even with the limitation, however, these analyses demonstrated that studying impact crater distributions could expand understanding of the geology of the saturnian satellites and impact cratering in the outer Solar System. Thus to gain further insight into Saturn’s mid-sized satellites and impact cratering in the outer Solar System, we have compiled cratering records of these satellites using higher resolution Cassini ISS images. Images from Cassini of the satellites range in resolution from tens m/pixel to hundreds m/pixel. These high-resolution images provide a look at the impact cratering records of these satellites never seen before, expanding the observable craters down to diameters of hundreds of meters. The diameters and locations of all observable craters are recorded for regions of Mimas, Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Iapetus, and Phoebe. These impact crater data are then analyzed and compared using cumulative, differential and relative ( R) size-frequency distributions. Results indicate that the heavily cratered terrains on Rhea and Iapetus have similar distributions implying one common impactor population bombarded these two satellites. The distributions for Mimas and Dione, however, are different from Rhea and Iapetus, but are similar to one another, possibly implying another impactor population common to those two satellites. The difference between these two populations is a relative increase of craters with diameters between 10 and 30 km and a relative deficiency of craters with diameters between 30 and 80 km for Mimas and Dione compared with Rhea and Iapetus. This may support the result from Voyager images of two distinct impactor populations. One population was suggested to have a greater number of large impactors, most likely heliocentric comets (Saturn Population I in the Voyager literature), and the other a relative deficiency of large impactors and a greater number of small impactors, most likely planetocentric debris (Saturn Population II). Meanwhile, Tethys’ impact crater size-frequency distribution, which has some similarity to the distributions of Mimas, Dione, Rhea, and Iapetus, may be transitional between the two populations. Furthermore, when the impact crater distributions from these older cratered terrains are compared to younger ones like Dione’s smooth plains, the distributions have some similarities and differences. Therefore, it is uncertain whether the size-frequency distribution of the impactor population(s) changed over time. Finally, we find that Phoebe has a unique impact crater distribution. Phoebe appears to be lacking craters in a narrow diameter range around 1 km. The explanation for this confined “dip” at D = 1 km is not yet clear, but may have something to do with the interaction of Saturn’s irregular satellites or the capture of Phoebe.

Constraints on gas giant satellite formation from the interior states of partially differentiated satellites

An icy satellite whose interior is composed of a homogeneous ice/rock mixture must avoid melting during its entire history, including during its formation when it was heated by deposition of accretional energy and short-lived radioisotopes. Estimates of the temperature rise associated with radiogenic and accretional heating, coupled with limits on satellite melting can be used to constrain the timing of formation of a partially differentiated satellite relative to the origin of the calcium–aluminum-rich inclusions (CAI's) as a function of its accretion timescale and the protosatellite disk temperature ( T d ). Geological characterization and spacecraft radio tracking data suggest that Callisto, the outermost regular satellite of Jupiter, and Saturn's mid-sized satellite Rhea, are partially differentiated if their interiors are in hydrostatic equilibrium. Because the specific conditions during the satellites' formation are uncertain, we determine accretional temperature profiles for a range of values for T d and accretion time scales with the limiting assumption that impactors deposit all their energy close to the surface, leading to maximally effective radiative cooling. We find that Callisto can remain unmelted during formation if it accreted on a time scale longer than 0.6 Myr. Considering both radiogenic and accretional heating, Callisto must have finished accreting no earlier than ∼4 Myr after formation of CAI's for T d = 100 K . Warmer disks or larger impactors that deposit their energy at depth in the satellite would require longer and/or later formation times. If Rhea accreted slowly (in 10 5 to 10 6 years), its growth must have finished no earlier than ∼2 Myr after CAI's for 70 K ⩽ T d ⩽ 250 K to avoid early melting. If Rhea formed quickly (⩽10 3 yr), its formation must have been delayed until at least 2 to 7 Myr after CAI's and in a disk with T d < 190 K in the small impactor limit. If the satellites form in slow-inflow-supplied disks as proposed by Canup and Ward [Canup, R.M., Ward, W.R., 2002. Astron. J. 124, 3404–3423], the implied satellite ages suggest that gas inflow to the giant planets ceased no earlier than ∼4 Myr after CAI's, comparable to average nebular lifetimes inferred from observations of circumstellar disks.

Mega-impact formation of the Mars hemispheric dichotomy

The Mars hemispheric dichotomy is expressed as a dramatic difference in elevation, crustal thickness and crater density between the southern highlands and northern lowlands (which cover approximately 42% of the surface). Despite the prominence of the dichotomy, its origin has remained enigmatic and models for its formation largely untested. Endogenic degree-1 convection models with north-south asymmetry are incomplete in that they are restricted to simulating only mantle dynamics and they neglect crustal evolution, whereas exogenic multiple impact events are statistically unlikely to concentrate in one hemisphere. A single mega-impact of the requisite size has not previously been modelled. However, it has been hypothesized that such an event could obliterate the evidence of its occurrence by completely covering the surface with melt or catastrophically disrupting the planet. Here we present a set of single-impact initial conditions by which a large impactor can produce features consistent with the observed dichotomy's crustal structure and persistence. Using three-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations, large variations are predicted in post-impact states depending on impact energy, velocity and, importantly, impact angle, with trends more pronounced or unseen in commonly studied smaller impacts. For impact energies of approximately (3-6) x 10(29) J, at low impact velocities (6-10 km s(-1)) and oblique impact angles (30-60 degrees ), the resulting crustal removal boundary is similar in size and ellipticity to the observed characteristics of the lowlands basin. Under these conditions, the melt distribution is largely contained within the area of impact and thus does not erase the evidence of the impact's occurrence. The antiquity of the dichotomy is consistent with the contemporaneous presence of impactors of diameter 1,600-2,700 km in Mars-crossing orbits, and the impact angle is consistent with the expected distribution.

Mass dispersal and angular momentum transfer during collisions between rubble-pile asteroids

We perform N-body simulations of impacts between initially non-rotating rubble-pile asteroids, and investigate mass dispersal and angular momentum transfer during such collisions. We find that the fraction of the dispersed mass ( M disp ) is approximately proportional to Q imp α , where Q imp is the impact kinetic energy; the power index α is about unity when the impactor is much smaller than the target, and 0.5 ≲ α < 1 for impacts with a larger impactor. M disp is found to be smaller for more dissipative impacts with small values of the restitution coefficient of the constituent particles. We also find that the efficiency of transfer of orbital angular momentum to the rotation of the largest remnant depends on the degree of disruption. In the case of disruptive oblique impacts where the mass of the largest remnant is about half of the target mass, most of the orbital angular momentum is carried away by the escaping fragments and the efficiency becomes very low (<0.05), while the largest remnant acquires a significant amount of spin angular momentum in moderately disruptive impacts. These results suggest that collisions likely played an important role in rotational evolution of small asteroids, in addition to the recoil force of thermal re-radiation.

High-pressure minerals in shocked L6-chondrites: constraints on impact conditions

We have studied the high-pressure phases observed in Yamato 791384 and ALH78003 L6-chondrites. Host meteorite consists mainly of olivine, pyroxenes, and plagioclase glass. Mineral fragments observed in the veins and the vein margin region of these meteorites were partially or totally transformed into high-pressure phases wadsleyite, ringwoodite, majorite, akimotoite, NaAlSi3O8 hollandite and jadeite. Whereas matrix of the shock vein contains majorite-pyrope solid solution in both meteorites. The spatial distribution indicates that high-pressure phases are present in the shock veins and host rocks adjacent to the shock veins. Investigation of the high-pressure phases revealed that, in Y791384, fragments and adjacent matrix were subjected to pressures around 18–23 GPa and the vein experienced temperatures around 2,000–2,300°C during the shock event. ALH78003 experienced the shock pressure of about 15–18 GPa at 2,000°C. Ringwoodite lamellae were observed in the host olivine adjacent to the vein in Y791384. Kinetic investigation for ringwoodite lamellar growth in olivine indicates that the meteorite experienced an impact with a pressure around 20 GPa for more than 4 s of the pressure pulse indicating a large impactor with the size greater than 10 km. ALH78003 contains wadsleyite–ringwoodite aggregates in the shock veins. The ringwoodite grains have wadsleyite rim enriched in Mg2SiO4 component. The compositional profiles of wadsleyite rim and ringwoodite core of the fragments in the shock veins in ALH78003 cannot be explained by a simple Mg–Fe inter-diffusion process.

Discovery of a 25-cm asteroid clast in the giant Morokweng impact crater, South Africa

Meteorites provide a sample of Solar System bodies and so constrain the types of objects that have collided with Earth over time. Meteorites analysed to date, however, are unlikely to be representative of the entire population and it is also possible that changes in their nature have occurred with time. Large objects are widely believed to be completely melted or vaporized during high-angle impact with the Earth. Consequently, identification of large impactors relies on indirect chemical tracers, notably the platinum-group elements. Here we report the discovery of a large (25-cm), unaltered, fossil meteorite, and several smaller fragments within the impact melt of the giant (> 70 km diameter), 145-Myr-old Morokweng crater, South Africa. The large fragment (clast) resembles an LL6 chondrite breccia, but contains anomalously iron-rich silicates, Fe-Ni sulphides, and no troilite or metal. It has chondritic chromium isotope ratios and identical platinum-group element ratios to the bulk impact melt. These features allow the unambiguous characterization of an impactor at a large crater. Furthermore, the unusual composition of the meteorite suggests that the Morokweng asteroid incorporated part of the LL chondrite parent body not represented by objects at present reaching the Earth.

Evidence for cometary bombardment episodes

Evidence is found that large terrestrial impacts tend to cluster in discrete episodes, with characteristic separations 25‐30 Myr and durations of about 1‐2 Myr. The largest impactors are strongly concentrated within such events, and the Cretaceous‐Tertiary extinctions occurred within one of them. The evidence also indicates the presence of a weak periodicity, which might be ! 24, ! 35 or ! 42 Myr depending on which peaks are taken as harmonics. The periodicity is most easily explained as a result of the action of the Galactic tide on the Oort comet cloud. The two longer period solutions are consistent with Galactic density estimates and with the current passage of the Solar system through the plane of the Galaxy. Other episodes may be a result of sporadic encounters with spiral arms, nebulae or stars.

Impact cratering on Titan II. Global melt, escaping ejecta, and aqueous alteration of surface organics

New three-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations of hypervelocity impacts into the crust of Titan were undertaken to determine the fraction of liquid water generated on the surface of Saturn's largest moon over its history and, hence, the potential for surface—modification of hydrocarbons and nitriles by exposure to liquid water. We model in detail an individual impact event in terms of ejecta produced and melt generated, and use this to estimate melt production over Titan's history, taking into account the total flux of the impactors and its decay over time. Our estimates show that a global melt layer at any time after the very beginning of Titan's history is improbable; but transient melting local to newly formed craters has occurred over large parts of the surface. Local maxima of the melt are connected with the largest impact events. We also calculate the amount of volatiles delivered at the impact with various impact velocities (from 3 km/s for possible Hyperion fragments to 11 km/s for Jupiter family comets) and their retention as a possible source of Titan's atmosphere. We find the probability of impact ejecta escaping Titan with its modern dense and thick atmosphere is rather low, and dispersal of Titan organics throughout the rest of the Solar System requires impactors tens of kilometers in diameter. Water ice melting and exposure of organics to liquid water has been widespread because of impacts, but burial or obscuration of craters by organic deposits or cryovolcanism is aided by viscous relaxation. The largest impactors may breach an ammonia–water mantle layer, creating a circular albedo contrast rather than a crater.

Deep Impact Mission Design

The Deep Impact mission is designed to provide the first opportunity to probe below the surface of a comet nucleus by a high-speed impact. This requires finding a suitable comet with launch and encounter conditions that allow a meaningful scientific experiment. The overall design requires the consideration of many factors ranging from environmental characteristics of the comet (nucleus size, dust levels, etc.), to launch dates fitting within the NASA Discovery program opportunities, to launch vehicle capability for a large impactor, to the observational conditions for the two approaching spacecraft and for telescopes on Earth.

Super-Eruptions and the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI)

Volcanic super-eruptions that produce &gt;1000 km3 of ejected material and ≥ 1000 Mt (1015g) of stratospheric aerosols and sub-micron dust may be capable of creating global climatic disturbances sufficient to cause a severe setback or crash of modern civilization. Eruptions of similar magnitude are estimated to occur on average about every 50000 to 100000 years, which may be considerably more frequent than impacts by asteroids and comets that could cause similar climatic disasters. Prediction, prevention, and mitigation of global volcanic climatic disasters are potentially more difficult than planetary protection from large impactors, so that volcanism might provide an ultimate limit on the longevity of technological civilizations. If the lifetime of technological civilizations were limited to less than 50 000 years by volcanism, then the number of communicative civilizations in the Galaxy might be less than 1 per 10 million stars. Thus, super-eruptions on geologically active, habitable planets may strongly affect the prospects in radio telescopic SETI.

Acyclic hydrocarbon environments ⩾ n-C 18 on the early terrestrial planets

The possible occurrence on the surface of the early Earth, Mars and Venus of hydrocarbon environments mainly composed by acyclic alkane molecules ⩾ n-C 18 has been revised. These hydrocarbons could be accumulated from the contribution of endogenous Fischer–Tropsh-type reactions and post-impact recombination reactions, as well as from exogenous sources such as comets, meteorites and dust particles. Such heavy alkane environments could offer protection for the synthesis and survival of biomolecules on the early terrestrial planets. Amounts of heavy n-alkanes delivered by large impactors, dust particles or produced by post-impact recombination on Venus would have been higher than those delivered or produced by the same sources on Earth and Mars before 3600 Myr ago. However, the high values of the total frequency of impacts by bolides >14-km in diameter estimated in this time period (viz. 3.9×10 3, Mars; 2.2×10 4, Earth, and 3.8×10 4 Venus) and the high surface temperatures generated by those impactors suggest the existence of very unstable conditions on the early terrestrial planets for the survival and long-term accumulation of acyclic hydrocarbons. Therefore, the most significant accumulation of n-alkanes could have occurred only during the longer intervals (10 5– 10 7 yr ) between each impact through the contribution mainly of IDPs, and thereby a high decomposition rate would be expected for the accumulated n-alkanes by successive impacts. Amounts of n-alkanes accumulated from IDPs in these intervals have been estimated between 2.3×10 9 and 2.2×10 10 kg 3600– 3800 Myr ago. These processes are expected to occur on other planetary bodies or satellites belonging to our solar system and probably in analogs of the early solar system.