Language Planning Activities Research Articles

The history and current situation of the Hmong writing system

The Hmong, or Miao, is a worldwide ethnic group. The Hmong writing system has developed over the centuries, with different writings produced successively in different historical periods. This study analyses several typical Hmong writing systems from a philological perspective and discusses the impact of history and human planning activities on creating and developing writing systems. The findings show the following. (1) The font of Hmong writing includes graphic style and stroke style, and the glyph of Xiangxi Square Writing has been squared. Some Hmong writing systems use the letter as a symbolic form, the syllable as a language unit and the phonetic expression as an expression method. (2) Social background and language planning activities were significant factors that influenced the creation and development of Hmong writing forms and structures. Analysing the Hmong writing system from a philological perspective is a significant reference for future Hmong language research and world language study. Exploring the factors affecting the development of the Hmong writing system is of great significance for protecting Hmong culture and the diversity of world civilizations.

Are Cantonese (Yue) and Hokkien (Southern Min) contested languages? Language planning and language attitudes in China and Malaysia

ABSTRACT Both among mainland China speakers and within the sizeable Chinese minority that lives in Malaysia, language varieties are categorised into two main groups: ‘languages’ on the one hand, and ‘dialects’ on the other. ‘Languages’ often enjoy at least some degree of official protection, have a written form, are used in some high domains, etc., whereas ‘dialects’ are supposed to be mostly oral languages spoken in low domains. Many of the varieties considered ‘dialects’ are however more accurately described as full-fledged languages that only share common origins with Mandarin, in the same way as Romance languages share common origins with Latin. Among these, Cantonese and Hokkien, the most widely spoken heritage languages in Malaysia, are notable examples. After an outline of the terminology employed to refer to Cantonese and Hokkien, this study examines the linguistic situation in China and Malaysia and the language planning activities carried out to maintain these two Chinese varieties. The methodology used to collect the data is then introduced, i.e. a sociolinguistic survey on the respondents’ opinion on language planning strategies and on the use of the terms ‘language’ and ‘dialect’. There follow a presentation of the data, a discussion of the results and some general conclusions.

Migrant bilingual youth, family, and school language policy: ethnographic insights for urban Quechua education

Abstract In this paper, I draw on the ethnography of language planning and policy to consider how urban Indigenous language education might benefit from understanding the meanings and processes behind other language planning and policy activities migrant youth participate in, specifically, family language policymaking activities. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork and interviews conducted in the region of Cusco, Perú I examine the experiences of two youth from rural hometowns and of their families. My analysis discusses how family language policies influenced youth’s shifting repertoires towards and away from Quechua, how youth drew on their Quechua–Spanish bilingualism to act as family language policy agents guided by local crianza and raciolinguistic ideologies, and how youth experienced Quechua language education in urban high schools. I argue that urban Quechua education efforts need to consider how migrant youth experience and shape their bilingualism and that of their families across rural-urban continua in order to craft safe and meaningful spaces where youth can participate in the strengthening of their Quechua language practices and identities.

French-language COVID-19 terminology

Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic situation developed very quickly, driving an urgent and global need to communicate public health information that left relatively little time for traditional and formal language planning activities. This article investigates and compares French-language COVID-19-related terms appearing in linguistic resources developed in Canada and Europe to determine whether this terminology appears to be international or localized. Findings reveal that regional variation exists and that one contributing factor is that de-terminologization is being accelerated by the popular media. Another key factor leading to linguistic differences is the language situation (i.e., majority vs minority situation). Overall, while there is considerable overlap in the terminology used in the two resources, there are enough differences to warrant underlining the importance of localizing terminological content in a situation such as a pandemic in order to ensure that communication of critical information is as effective as possible.

(What we don’t know about)Sign Languages in Higher Education in Europe: Mapping Policy and Practice to an analytical framework

AbstractThis paper focuses on issues related to sign language policies in Higher Educational Institutes (HEIs) in Europe. Drawing on the analytical framework proposed by Darquennes/Du Plessis/Soler (2020, i. e. this volume), which serves to address HEI language planning issues at macro, meso and micro levels, we carry out an inventory of how these issues play out for sign languages across Europe. Our investigation reveals the scarcity of information about sign language policies in HEIs, relating to both sign language as a language of instruction and as a subject of study. What becomes clear is that language planning activities (sign language acquisition, sign language status and corpus planning) are taking place in many countries but tend to go undocumented and unresearched. Given the increase in formal recognition of sign languages across Europe, coupled with the ratification of the UN’s Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) by all EU member states, it would seem logical to expect that the status and prestige of sign languages would rise, with greater visibility of, and planning for, incorporation of sign languages in HEIs. However, the reality of the situation is unclear, suggesting the need for coordinated effort, supported by key pan-European bodies like the Council of Europe, the European Centre for Modern Languages and the European Commission, to ensure that sign language policy is on the agenda as parts of a rights-based response to deaf communities and the sign languages of Europe. Equally important is the need for European HEIs to embrace sign languages and ensure that they are part of the linguistic landscape. This will support and promote the status planning of sign languages and open up access to HEIs for deaf communities, a group that remains under-represented in academia.

Domain loss theory revisited: From multinational corporations to multicorporate nations

This paper examines how multinational corporations (MNCs) act as language managers when handling linguistic diversity in the workforce, for example through corporate language policies. Cooper's status, corpus and acquisition planning framework is applied to two case companies headquartered in Scandinavia, and the findings show that the MNCs' language policy and planning (LPP) activities go beyond the boundaries of the organisations, and interfere with the LPP activities of their home countries. The paper concludes that the language planning activities of MNCs may be even more important and impactful than those of the nation‐state. The term “multicorporate nations” is used to denote a shift in language management agency; a shift where the corporate level represents the new macro level and the national level the new meso level.

Two worlds in one city: a sociopolitical perspective on Chinese urban families’ language planning

ABSTRACT This comparative inquiry investigated the family language planning in two distinctive socioeconomic communities in a Chinese metropolitan city. We followed a multilayered framework to probe into language beliefs, practices and management in the family domain as mediated by the interconnectivity of multiple contextual forces. We collected three types of data from governmental policy documents, field visits to two community libraries, and questionnaires from 237 residents from the two communities. Data analysis identified an early childhood language policy disfavoring English learning at the macro level, distinctive English literacy activities at the meso-community level, and similar aspirations with different management practices at the micro-family level. We argue that the observed disjuncture in English language planning between the macro and micro levels creates a space for parents as social actors to take ownership and negotiate their language planning activities at the meso level. However, although families from different socioeconomic backgrounds demonstrated similar aspirations for their children's English and Chinese development, the parents’ socioeconomic status affected their ability to invest family capital in their children's language learning, and to translate their language ideologies into consistent language planning activities. Issues related to educational equity are discussed at the end of the paper.

Conflicting linguistic identities: language choices of parents and their children in rural migrant workers’ families

ABSTRACT This study explores the interaction between rural migrant workers’ (RMWs) language ideologies, linguistic identities and their family language planning activities in China. Focusing on language choices of RMW parents and their children, the study involves eight families who migrated from rural to urban areas. Data were collected through home observations, recorded family conversations and semi-structured interviews. The findings reveal that RMWs experience conflicting identities instantiated by their language choices and language practices. Tangled in multiple identities, such as temporary urban residents, undereducated low-paid labourers, homesick rural-urban migrants and trustworthy employees, they frequently face the predicament of having to choose between either Putonghua (the official language in China, also known as the common speech) or hometown fangyans (also known as regional dialects) or local fangyans to deal with everyday issues. The association between identities and language ideologies drive RMWs to intentionally use Putonghua as language management strategy at home. Consequently, the language choices of both parents and their children show a shift from fangyan to Putonghua. The findings also suggest that parental language ideologies and planning activities in home domains are shaped by macro social systems, public discourse and language planning at a national level.

Reflect, Revisit, Reimagine: Ethnography of Language Policy and Planning

AbstractTracing applied linguists’ interests in language policy and planning (LPP) as reflected in the pages of theAnnual Review of Applied Linguisticssince its founding in 1980, I focus on the emergence of, and current boom in, ethnographic LPP research. I draw on the ethnographic concept of ideological and implementational LPP spaces as scalar, layered policies and practices influencing each other, mutually reinforcing, wedging, and transforming ideology through implementation and vice versa. Doing so highlights how the perennial policy-practice gap is given nuance through exploration of the intertwining dynamics of top-down/bottom-up language planning activities and processes, monoglossic/heteroglossic language ideologies and practices, potential equality/actual inequality of languages, and critical/transformative research paradigms in LPP.

Teacher trainee sociolinguistic backgrounds and attitudes to language-in-education policy in Ghana: a preliminary survey

ABSTRACTThis paper explores, at the micro level, the sociolinguistic backgrounds of teacher trainees in a College of Education in Accra and their perceptions toward Ghana’s current language-in-education policy. It aims at finding how these micro-level sociolinguistic insights could provide suggestions for language-in-education policies at the macro level. This paper argues that the disparities between policy and practice that have occurred in language-in-education policy partly stem from the possible neglect of the multilingual realities of Ghana in the formulation and implementation of the policies. Being a multilingual country, the recognition of a need for a language (or languages) of communication, and a need to select one or more languages for official purposes are crucial in the language planning activities. The linguistic backgrounds of the teacher trainees and their repertoires illustrate the high level of bilingualism and multilingualism in the country. Although a preliminary survey, we propose a flexible bilingual language-in-education policy to address the linguistic complexities of Ghana. We suggest a bottom-up approach for soliciting inputs toward a macro-level policy.

Språkpolitiska inslag i kampen mot diskriminering

This article takes an interest in words and expressions evolving as part of the fight against discrimination, derogatory attitudes and oppression. A point of departure is that linguistic changes relating to increased diversity sometimes become the object of public criticism, which in turn may produce challenges to writers and journalists, as well as to language-planning activities. The aim is to investigate new naming practices within a framework of political justice agendas of people facing discrimination, and to relate this type of language development to the work of languageplanning institutions. This study is mainly based on interviews with representatives of three Swedish organizations whose members are engaged in activism or education: the disability movement, the LGBTQ movement, and an antiracist organization. It is also based on text examples from Mediearkivet and Korp (Språkbanken) relating public discourse. Analytical results indicate that different ideological standpoints (such as tolerance policies or norm critique) generate different types of naming practices and word meanings that often exist in parallel. Suggested language-planning activities to enable viable recommendations could involve an update of ideological points of view and the identification of meaning variation regarding potentially useful expressions.

Language planning and language policy in Sardinia

AbstractIn 1999, the Italian Republic acknowledged the status of Sardinian as a minority language. Since then the Autonomous Region of Sardinia has been committed to the development of language policies for Sardinian. A regional law approved in 1997 adopted the aim of promoting the different varieties of the languages spoken in Sardinia. The goals changed substantially when the Region adopted for its language planning activities the ideas of a cultural-political movement known asMovimentu Linguisticu Sardu, and appointed an activist Director of the Bureau of the Sardinian Language. This article presents and discusses the key steps in the last decade of language planning: the proposals, their development and consequences.

Bilingual Educationat Sudanese Universities: Exploring Effectiveness and Implications by Ishraga Bashir Mohammed Elhassan English Department, Faculty of Arts Al-Neelain University

<p><em>The aim of this study is to identify the fundamental principles underpinning the effectiveness of bilingual education at universities. The study </em><em>highlights the</em><em> </em><em>implemented language planning activities in three private universities and three Government universities. Also the study reports on the advantages and disadvantages of monolingual education,</em><em> </em><em>Arabic-medium and</em><em> </em><em>English-medium</em><em> </em><em>universities.</em><em> </em><em>The reveals that the attitude of most of the students and their faculty members were in favor of using</em><em> </em><em>a mixer of Arabic</em><em>/</em><em>English instructions. The researcher recommend<strong>s </strong>that policy makers and educationists in Sudan should nurture Bilingualism or even multilingualism and to develop programmes that enhance bilingual education.</em></p>

Language policies and the role of development agencies in postcolonial Mozambique

ABSTRACTThis article focuses on the interface between language policy and development in Mozambique. Special attention is devoted to the interplay between language and education and to the role of development agencies in language policy and planning activities in Mozambique. I show that there has now been a discourse shift from homogenizing language policies to those that celebrate diversity and difference. However, I argue that in order to achieve effective human development in Mozambique, in addition to Portuguese, African languages should be developed and also legitimately used as media for full participation in all dimensions of development. I also show how some development agencies have been pushing the Government of Mozambique toward inclusive language policy dispensations.

Home language policy of second-generation Turkish families in the Netherlands

ABSTRACTThis study investigated the family language policy of second-generation Turkish immigrant families in the Netherlands by exploring their language ideologies, practices, and management strategies. Using an ethnographic approach, data were collected through a set of observations and interviews with 20 families. Transcriptions of interviews and memos of observations were coded to derive the major strategies employed by parents regarding home language use. The findings show that, although Turkish maintenance is a very important part of the linguistic ideologies of the families studied, there is great diversity and complexity in their language practices and management strategies. All of the families focus their language planning activities around the educational achievement of their children. Therefore, the recommendations of educational institutions are very important in their language practices.

Language planning agency in China: from the perspective of the language academies

Prof. Baldauf was one of the first who saw the planning agency as a central issue in examining the effectiveness of language planning (LP) endeavors (e.g. Baldauf, R. B. Jr. (1982). The language situation in American Samoa: Planners, plans and planning. Language Planning Newsletter, 1(8), 1–6). This paper chooses the language academy (LA) as a representation of language agency and examines its role in Chinese LP in modern history. China does not have an LA in the sense the term is used elsewhere in the world as Kaplan and Baldauf [(1997). Language planning from practice to theory. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters] describe. However, a constellation of official or semi-official LP organizations of various LA formats related to Chinese LP has existed through a century of the Chinese language modernization movement. This paper evaluates the efforts of these organizations with a focus on the interaction between the LP activities, the LP agency and socio-political conditions. We argue that the socio-political landscape as an enabler for LP in China has seen phenomenal changes as a result of the economic development and technological advancement in recent decades; the societal behavior of the people as the targeted recipients of LP goods has been increasingly governed by a postmodernist mentality. In this context, this paper concludes that a national LA would enhance the effectiveness of future LP ventures in the Chinese context.

Evaluating Effects of Language Recognition on Language Rights and the Vitality of New Zealand Sign Language

Status planning through legislation made New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL) an official language in 2006. But this strong symbolic action did not create resources or mechanisms to further the aims of the act. In this article we discuss the extent to which legal recognition and ensuing language-planning activities by state and community have affected the instrumental rights of Deaf NZSL users and consider the prospects for the vitality of NZSL. As evidence, we draw on both the findings of a 2013 Human Rights Commission inquiry into inequalities for NZSL users and data from a study of the vitality of NZSL. We conclude that progress on the language recognition outcomes desired by the Deaf community falls well short of aspirations and that the vitality of NZSL is threatened by declining community size and the current conditions for intergenerational transmission.

LANGUAGE OF LEARNING AND TEACHING IN A MULTILINGUAL SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT: WHAT DO TEACHERS THINK?

ABSTRACTOne of the enduring problems of South African educational policy changes in the past 20 years is the fact that curricula, legislation and policies have changed radically while the staff complement has remained relatively stable. Despite a progressive national language policy, schools have increasingly introduced English as the sole language of learning and teaching (LoLT), preferably from the earliest grades. In all the debate about the ‘best’ language of learning and teaching, however, there seems to be a missing voice: that of the teacher. Using an analytical framework developed by Richard Baldauf, this study shows how a focus on micro level language planning activities is important for teacher development and language policy implementation. When debating language issues, particularly the language of learning and teaching, teachers do not have a big enough say or may not be fully aware of alternative models for multilingual classes. This study brings the teacher's voice to the language policy debate. The results show that teachers are keenly aware of the multilingual context and their views and decision-making processes reflect this awareness.

Micro language planning for multilingual education: agency in local contexts

This paper overviews some of the domains of application of micro-level language planning approaches to foster multilingual education. It examines the language planning of local agents and the contexts in which their work contributes to multilingual education, either to expand or limit educational possibilities. It identifies four broad contexts of language planning activity in which local agents work: the local implementation of macro-level policy, contestation of macro-level policy, addressing local needs in the absence of macro-level policy and opening new possibilities for developing multilingualism. These contexts provide a way of framing the contribution that micro language planning work and local agents can make to multilingual education.

Restandardisation defined as democratising language planning

The 1980s and 1990s saw several international political and social developments that gave rise to the ideology of democracy, which focuses on issues such as equal human rights and human dignity. Furthermore, globalisation gave rise to a worldwide ethnic renaissance with a focus on the nurturing of diversity. These developments led to the increased valuing and validation of variation, including language variation. Given this democratisation of the world, the relevance of standard languages, which are undeniably ideological in nature, is increasingly being questioned. Does a language variety which only serves the economic, social and political elite of a speech community still have a role to play in a democratic society? Or should we accept that this will inevitably lead to the destandardisation of languages? These are the questions that gave rise to discussions on the restandardisation of languages. The literature is, however, not yet clear on what is meant by restandardisation, as no unambiguous definition of this term exists as of yet. The aim of this paper is to give a clearer understanding of what restandardisation entails by discussing relevant literature on restandardisation, standardisation, destandardisation and other aspects of language planning in order to provide an unambiguous definition of restandardisation. By specifying its language planning and democratic properties, this paper aims to define restandardisation as democratising language planning, i.e. a language planning activity with the ability to transform the standard language in order to make it a democratic tool of communication that serves the entire speech community and in which all the speakers of the different varieties of a language are represented.