L2 Users Research Articles

English medium instruction: teachers’ challenges and coping strategies

Abstract English medium instruction (EMI) is a growing phenomenon in many countries. Some researchers have investigated the difficulties and strategies students use to cope with EMI. However, the pedagogical challenges faced and strategies used by other key participants, teachers, have been surprisingly under-researched. This study utilizes questionnaire and interview data to identify the challenges and coping strategies used by secondary school EMI science teachers in Hong Kong. A number of challenges and strategies were reported. The authors argue that many of these challenges can be overcome with principles and strategies from ELT, as the ‘English’ in EMI is often the main issue. The most prevalent strategy reported is the use of L1. Two perspectives on L1 usage in EMI contexts are discussed. Two emergent realities are presented as possible solutions: the idealized reality and the immediate reality. Implications for teachers and suggestions for future research are provided.

La périphérie gauche et droite dans la production des locuteurs natifs et non-natifs de français et chez les locuteurs natifs de suédois

Romance languages, including French, tend to put much information in the left periphery whereas in Swedish the trend seems to be the opposite (Morel & Danon-Boileau, 1998, Conway, 2005, Hancock, 2007, Fant, in press). The first objective is to provide a global overview of the taxonomy of the constituents of the left and right periphery in French and Swedish L1, in order to afford a comparative analysis. The second objective is to compare French L2 usage with that of French L1. The results indicate significant differences between the patterns employed in the syntactic peripheries in French and Swedish. Swedish speakers tend to use the right periphery significantly more than L1 French speakers. As far as the left periphery is concerned, the production of French speakers far exceeds that of Swedish speakers. Advanced speakers of French L2 approach French L1 except regarding the most complex left peripheries.

Observing EFL teachers' use of formulaic language in class

Mastering formulaic language is said to be crucially important in second language (L2) learning as it showcases the L2 user’s different levels of competency: linguistic, psycholinguistic, and communicative. Frequent use of these formulaic sequences also makes an L2 speaker sound more native–like. In a language teaching and learning context where English is a foreign language (EFL), the language teacher is the one major resource of spoken language exposure. Therefore, the quality of teacher’s instructions in an EFL classroom clearly has effects on the learner’s language learning process. Mercer (2001) puts it, “[a]ll […] aspects of teacher’s responsibility are reflected in their use of language as the principal tool of their responsibilities” (p. 243). A great deal of research has been devoted to L2 learners and the acquisition of formulaic language, and classroom interaction, but very little attention has been paid to teachers’ use of formulaic sequences in their classrooms. This paper presents a descriptive study with analytical discussion of extracts from four video–recorded lessons conducted by school teachers in different South–east Asian countries. This small-scale study attempts to explore to what extent non–native EFL teachers are familiar with and use formulaic language during class time.

The Effects of Code-switched Instruction on L2 Learning: a Research Synthesis

A ideia de que o ensino de línguas deve ser feito exclusivamente na língua-alvo e de que os ‘falantes nativos’ são melhores professores ainda existe. Nesse contexto, há professores de língua que acreditam que a alternância de códigos é prejudicial ao aprendizado da língua-alvo, enquanto outros entendem que o uso da língua materna pode beneficiá-lo (Tian Macaro, 2012). Buscando entender o que as pesquisas encontraram sobre os efeitos do ensino de línguas com alternância de código, realizamos uma síntese de pesquisa de estudos publicados entre 2008 e 2018. Nossas perguntas de pesquisa foram 1) quais são os efeitos da instrução com alternância de código no aprendizado de segunda língua? 2) este tipo de instrução leva a melhores resultados? e 3) quais são os contextos das pesquisas que investigaram a alternância de código e quem sãos seus participantes? Oito dos nove estudos encontrados apontam que a instrução com alternância de código obteve melhores resultados do que a instrução feita exclusivamente na língua-alvo, com efeitos positivos sendo reportados em todos eles. Assim, entendemos que a alternância de código não é necessariamente um sinal de falta de competência linguística e que ela não é prejudicial à aprendizagem de línguas.

Emotionality and pleasantness of mixed‐emotion stimuli: The role of language, modality, and emotional intelligence

The study aimed to explore how 174 Spanish first language (L1) and foreign language (LX) users perceive emotionality and pleasantness in audiovisual and purely visual material eliciting blended emotions, and whether cultural background and Trait Emotional Intelligence (EI) are linked to emotion perception. Overall, LX users tended to provide higher ratings of emotionality and pleasantness than L1 users, suggesting that they might be aware of the LX detachment effect and overcompensate when providing emotion perception ratings. American participants rated the stimuli as more emotional and pleasant than Asian participants regardless of modality of presentation. On the other hand, Trait EI turned out to be unrelated to emotionality and pleasantness contrary to previous evidence suggesting a positive role of EI in decoding emotions.

An exploratory analysis of linking adverbials in post-secondary texts from L1 Arabic, Chinese, and English writers

Linking adverbials (e.g., in addition, however) are an important aspect of discourse cohesion. However, our understanding of how these items are used by post-secondary writers is lacking, particularly as it relates to potential L1-related production differences. The current research aims to better understand how writers from three different language backgrounds (Arabic, Chinese, English) make use of linking adverbials in their academic English writing. Quantitative and qualitative methods were used to assess production differences for linking adverbials in the writing of each L1 using a collection of 240 essays. Findings include general overuse (types and tokens) by L2 users, overuse of listing and appositional devices by L1 Arabic writers, overuse of contrastive and transitional linking adverbials by L1 Chinese writers, and underuse of summative items by L1 English writers. Pedagogical and methodological implications of these findings are discussed.

A story to tell… How to integrate the three Modes of Communication through a story time program in French

Bilingual story time programs found in local community libraries not only benefit children, they can also serve a need for L2 college students: the development of their communicative skills in an authentic environment. In addition to linguistic benefits, experiential learning has proven to prepare students for real-world skills, such as networking, mock professional experience and a sense of community engagement. This paper recounts how a world language story time program supports L2 learners’ three modes of communication, as articulated by ACTFL, and necessary for language development. Based on students’ perceptions, this study highlights their increase in motivation and confidence in L2 usage, and lays out the organization of such a program.

Resolving interactional troubles and maintaining progressivity in paired speaking assessment in an EFL context

Any form of talk-in-interaction is organized in relation to progressivity (Schegloff, 2007; Hosoda & Aline, 2013). Progressivity of interaction may involve resolving interactional troubles and producing subsequent talk, and it is endemic to the organisation of conversation at the level of turn construction (Schegloff, 1979). In testing speaking skills, as progressivity of talk between peers is central for teachers to be able to assess students’ performances, troubles that halt progressivity and the resolution of such troubles by the students deserve close analyses. Against this background, this paper focuses on how paired L2 (i.e., English) speaking assessment interactions unfold in a Turkish higher education context. Using multimodal conversation analysis, we investigated the interactional resources that are deployed to maintain progressivity when there is a halt in the unfolding interaction, an under-researched phenomenon in L2 speaking assessment contexts. We used transcriptions of 100 video-recorded paired test interactions, each of which were approximately four minutes long. We identified and described the ways interactional trouble was flagged, paying close attention to how embodied resources, such as hand and other gestures, gaze direction, posture and body orientation, and facial expressions (Nevile, 2015), are used by the interactants. Based on 100 paired assessment interactions our findings reveal that in moments of interactional trouble participants make transitions to a sub-topic, formulate understandings, and engage in collaborative completions to maintain progressivity, using a variety of interactional resources as part of their interactional repertoires. The ways such troubles unfold in interaction and how they are resolved by L2 users to maintain progressivity of test-talk have potential to inform research on the assessment of Interactional Competence.

Mobile instant messaging: a bonanza for interlanguage pragmatics

While mobile communication technologies have been exploited for instructional second and foreign language (L2) research, authentic mobile instant messaging (MIM) interactions remain virtually unexamined. As a result, decidedly little is known about L2 users’ interlinguistic behavior in genuine MIM conversation. This type of communication may nevertheless be of interest to interlanguage pragmatics (ILP) research, particularly for what it may reveal about the intersection of cultures and electronically-mediated communities. This article traces the current state of related research and contemplates some preliminary conceptual and methodological considerations for future inquiries. It first reviews previous L1 and L2 studies involving mobile and instant messaging mediums. From among these, it notes two underexplored concepts which are relevant to ILP: namely, interculture and cultures-of-use. Respectively related to co-constructed culture and communities of practice, these aspects may shed light on and be illuminated by interlinguistic MIM interaction. Finally, the article looks to future investigations and, while not specifying analytical procedures, it recommends emic methods such as conversation analysis for examining these phenomena.

Is there an Increase in Fluency over Levels of Proficiency? A Study of English L2 Usage of Japanese University Students

Is there an Increase in Fluency over Levels of Proficiency? A Study of English L2 Usage of Japanese University Students

The Production and Perception of the Affricate /tʃ/ and the Fricative /ʃ/ by Igala ELS Users

A second language user is one who has his own language (L1) and probably mastered all there is to the sound system of his L1. The already existing language system makes second language learning difficult thereby resulting in what is called ‘errors’ as an effect of interference. Phonologically, it is a hard task learning a second language because each language has its unique phonology. This paper x-rayed the difficulties encountered by Igala L2 users with reference to the production and perception of the affricate /tʃ/ and the fricative /ʃ/. The study used carefully prepared sentences containing the two sounds under study to elicit data from the target population. The data were analyzed using frequency and percentage counts. From the analysis it was discovered that there exist production problems in the use of the affricate /tʃ/ and the fricative /ʃ/ by Igala users of English as a Second Language where /tʃ/ is substituted for /ʃ/ and vice versa. Conclusion drawn from the result was the need for Igala users to aspire for competence in their use of English as a second language particularly the phonological aspects because being proficient in any language begins with good understanding and correct usage of the sound systems thereby bringing about intelligibility.

The development on transposed-letter effect in English word recognition: Evidence from Late unbalanced Chinese-English bilinguals

The present study examined the orthographic processing of English visual word recognition in adult Chinese-speaking English learners under the framework of the multiple-route model of reading development. Two groups of adult learners with high and low English proficiency finished a forward-masked lexical decision task. The results showed a complicated scenario on transposed-letter effects, implying that the late unbalanced Chinese-English bilinguals with low English proficiency still needed to adopt a letter-to-letter reading strategy, and that the L2 users with high English proficiency also had not properly developed the fine-grained orthographic route even they had a long experience of English learning in the foreign language learning settings in China. Overall, it is suggested that late unbalanced Chinese-English bilinguals generally follow a path similar to that of native readers in acquiring English visual word recognition skills developed from the letter-to-letter reading strategy to the parallel orthographic processing strategies. However, since L2 users usually have no or limited spoken vocabulary of English before accessing printed words and inadequate supervision in developing L2 word reading skills, their development would be much slower than that of English native speakers.

Second language English listeners’ relative processing of coherence-based and frequency-based formulas: A corpus-based study

Abstract This study investigated L2 English listeners’ processing of formulas, in terms of the impact of two different factors inherent in these formulas. One was the formulas’ level of coherence and the other was the formulas’ level of frequency. High-coherence formulas are considered to have specialized meanings, while high-frequency formulas are considered to be less specialized in meaning, commonly being composed of relatively simple words that often co-occur in speech. In previous research, in an academic context, Ellis, Simpson-Vlach and Maynard (2008. Formulaic language in native and second-language speakers: Psycholinguistics, corpus linguistics, and TESOL. TESOL Quarterly 41. 375–396. doi:10.1002/j.1545-7249.2008.tb00137.x) had found that a high level of coherence was the main factor facilitating L1 users’ receptive processing of formulas, while a high level of frequency was the main factor facilitating advanced L2 users’ receptive processing of formulas. Ellis, Simpson-Vlach and Maynard (2008. Formulaic language in native and second-language speakers: Psycholinguistics, corpus linguistics, and TESOL. TESOL Quarterly 41. 375–396. doi:10.1002/j.1545-7249.2008.tb00137.x), from a usage-based perspective, attributed these differences mainly to the greater length of time the L1 users had spent in learning formulas. Consequently, the current study investigated whether these processing differences between the two user groups in an academic context (seen as a possible developmental trend) would be apparent between proficient and less-proficient L2 listeners in a relatively less-challenging, general English environment. The study was considered important for possibly signaling the types of aural receptive formulas to foreground by L2 general English instructors and materials designers. The research examined two groups of L2 learners, one advanced and the other intermediate level, while they listened to four texts. A paused transcription technique elicited the listeners’ identification of targeted segments from the texts, many of which were classified through corpus analysis as containing more/less-coherent formulas or more/less-frequent formulas. Examination of how these formula types were processed by both proficiency groups, however, did not find major differences between the groups in their processing of the different formula types, and thus little evidence of a possible formula developmental trend.

Bilingualism as a gradient measure modulates functional connectivity of language and control networks

There is currently no agreement on which factor modulates most effectively and enduringly brain plasticity in bilingual individuals. Grouping heterogeneous linguistic profiles under a dichotomous condition (bilingualism versus monolingualism) may obscure critical aspects of language experience underlying neural changes, thus leading to variable and often conflicting findings. In the present study, we overcome these limitations by analyzing the individual and joint contribution of L2 AoA, proficiency and usage – all measured as continuous variables – on the resting-state functional connectivity of the brain networks mediating the specific demands of bilingual language processing: the language network and the executive control network. Our results indicate that bilingual experience – defined as a continuous and multifaceted phenomenon – impacts brain plasticity by modulating the functional connectivity both within and between language and control networks. Each experience-related factor considered played a role in changing the connectivity of these regions. Moreover, the effect of AoA was modulated by proficiency and usage. These findings shed new light on the importance of modeling bilingualism as a gradient measure rather than an all-or-none phenomenon.

When knowing a grammar rule makes L2 users non-native-like

In this work, we investigate the effects of transfer of training in late Brazilian Portuguese-English bilinguals, compared to natives, in relation to their processing of the English causative-have construction. Two experiments were conducted: one focused on the comprehension of the pattern, and the other focused on its production. The results of both experiments point to the fact that the grammatical rule learned by bilinguals is only 'transferred' when there is time to implement it. In the first experiment, we found no effect of training, on the contrary, bilinguals might have been affected by the SVO distribution of the corresponding construction in their L1. In the second experiment, however, we found that bilinguals had high rates of usage of the canonical causative-have form, SAuxOV. This behavior indicates that bilinguals do not implement the rule automatically. Rather, its implementation is seen in more controlled tasks. Thus, explicitly given grammatical rules seem not to be implicitly learned, as they are not automatized to be easily retrieved in real life usage. Moreover, concerning the causative-have rule, bilinguals' linguistic behavior was more similar to that of natives' when they did not implement the rule and used the SVO form with a causative sense.

Enjoyment as a key to success? Links between e-tandem language learning and tertiary students’ foreign language enjoyment

This paper reports on crossing borders virtually via an e-Tandem scheme and presents the findings of a study, in which students of English from an Austrian university were paired with students of German from the UK and the USA. Drawing on data from 19 in-depth interviews, the study aims to identify links between e-Tandem language learning and foreign language enjoyment (FLE) (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014, 2016). A category-based qualitative text analysis (Kuckartz, 2014) revealed that a majority of the interviewees felt e-Tandem language learning contributed to their FLE. Furthermore, a range of reasons underlying students’ perceived enjoyment of learning a language in Tandem emerged: having authentic conversations in the target language with L1 (first language) users (Dewaele, 2018), perceiving each other as cultural mediators and a difference from language classroom contexts on the level of power relations, which made students feel more at ease. Helping each other, receiving one-on-one feedback and perceiving improvement in their linguistic mastery were furthermore mentioned as factors they felt boosted their enjoyment and so was developing friendships with L1 users. According to the interviewees, these aspects specifically increased their interest and enjoyment in using and learning the language and their eudaimonic happiness. The findings demonstrate that e-Tandem language learning can be a resource to enhance perceived enjoyment in foreign language learners at tertiary level and they illustrate that social and private components of FLE seem to be interlinked.

Identity development through study abroad experiences: Storied accounts

This study investigated three Japanese L2 learners who joined a government-funded, short-term study abroad program in the USA during their first year of college. Four years after the program, we interviewed the learners about their overseas experiences. We also asked what they had done during their university years after the program. We then analyzed their accounts to explore participants’ linguistic and personal growth during and after the program. Their stories offered important insights into what short-term study abroad programs should provide: critical experiences that participants embrace through meeting and communicating with new people in L2s for the purpose of mutual understanding. When participants perceived their experiences to be successful and valuable and felt a desire to become a more efficient L2 user, they took actions to improve their L2 skills in relation to other life goals after returning home. Furthermore, their L2 identities are likely interwoven with their current and aspiring personal identities. As such, their stories are self-development trajectories and evidence of L2-learning-mediated personal growth through social interaction. We propose that short-term study programs: (a) avoid an exclusive focus on L2 learning on-site, (b) include ample opportunities of meaningful social interaction, and (c) target first-year students.

The role of international student interactions in English as a lingua franca in L2 acquisition, L2 motivational development and intercultural learning during study abroad

Crossing borders features prominently as a theme in study abroad, not only in terms of students’ physical border crossings but also in their intercultural interactions with second language (L2) speakers whose background (linguistic and otherwise) they may perceive as markedly different from their own. Researchers have had a long-standing interest in study abroad participants’ interactions with other L2 speakers abroad for their perceived potential to enhance L2 development, L2 motivation and intercultural learning processes. The focus of existing studies in this area has been on the interactions of study abroad participants with host national students, while their interactions with other international students who are also L2 users abroad have received far less attention, despite the ever-growing international student populations at European universities. This study examined students’ views regarding the role that lingua franca (LF) interactions with other international students played in their L2 acquisition, their L2 motivational development and their intercultural learning during study abroad. The data were derived from an empirical study that involved 81 German ERASMUS students who were studying in the UK for up to one academic year. The students’ views were elicited at the end of their stay with open-ended questionnaire items, and their verbal responses were analyzed using thematic content analysis. The analysis of the students’ reflections revealed a number of functions in each of the three areas, highlighting the potential of international student interactions as a viable source of L2 acquisition, L2 self-motivation, and intercultural learning during study abroad.

Holding up one’s end of the conversation in spoken English

AbstractThis study investigates the use of lexical backchannels in the discourse of L2 English users sitting Trinity College London’s Graded Examinations in Spoken English (GESE). It is based on theTrinity Lancaster Corpus Sampleand explores the language produced during the Discussion, Conversation and Interactive tasks of the language examinations by L2 English users from Chinese, Indian and Italian linguistic backgrounds, whose proficiency ranges from the B2 to C2 levels (i.e. high intermediate, advanced, expert) of the CEFR. The findings suggest that the L2 users with an Italian background and to a lesser extent those with a Chinese background often supported their examiners’ turns with items conveying uncertainty, while those with an Indian background with items of certainty. Furthermore, the L1 Chinese speakers used lexical backchannels the most, especially those expressing surprise or request for confirmation, while the speakers from India used them the least. Implications for the assessment of oral proficiency are discussed.

Hjælp! Jeg har mistede min yndlings rød taske. Et studie af grammatikafvigelser

Grammar anomalies are frequent in texts produced by second language learners. When describing these anomalies, two main issues arise: What is anomalous use of grammar? And how are grammar anomalies distinct from orthographic and lexical anomalies? We review earlier error-definitions and suggest defining grammar anomalies according to an explicit norm instead of L1 usage. We propose a broader definition of grammar than in previous studies, based on Boye & Harder (2012). The distinction between grammar, lexicon and orthography is illustrated with data from 28 adult L1 English learners of L2 Danish. In the corpus, 55.9 % of the anomalies were related to grammar. Finally, we discuss how definitions and procedures can be used in future studies of naturally occurring grammar anomalies.