L2 Users Research Articles

Can adult learners sense L2 emotional words automatically? The role of L2 use on the emotional Stroop effect

The present study investigated whether adult learners of second language (L2) can automatically activate emotional connotation during emotional word recognition as compared native (L1) users and whether L2 use plays a significant role in it. The automaticity of activation was measured through the emotional Stroop task. In this task, emotional words and neutral words were displayed in two different colors, and the participants were asked to indicate the color by button press. Results showed a delay in L2 learners’ response to emotional words (the emotional Stroop effect) without significant differences from L1 users’ response, indicating comparable automaticity in activating emotional connotation in performing the task. Further analyses on the effect of L2 use revealed its significant role in increasing the emotional Stroop effect. Specifically, L2 learners with higher amount of L2 use in daily life produced a significant emotion Stroop effect comparable to L1 users, while L2 learners with lower L2 use did not. We discuss the importance of L2 use in actual context in automatic processing of L2 emotional words, especially among adult learners who began L2 learning in adulthood in a case of underrepresented languages as L2.

A multi-faceted evaluation of the impact on students of an Australian university-wide academic language development program

In response to the ongoing need to support all students’ academic language development throughout their university studies, the academic language and learning team at an Australian university has established the Academic Language Development (ALD) program. This program screens all commencing students at the university and offers an innovative whole-of-institution approach to discipline-specific language development. The purpose of this paper is to report on a large-scale, long-term and multi-faceted evaluation of the ALD program, considering the impact of attending compulsory language development tutorials on 3922 students, the majority of whom were L2 users of English. Surveys have been carried out and data collected on academic language development, academic outcomes, student perceptions of their confidence, and other gains from attending the tutorials. A particular focus of this analysis is on the affective aspects of language development. In addition to developing academic language proficiency, the findings show that students benefited in multiple ways from the ALD program. Key themes emerged from the data around confidence, agency, and social connections, as well as a greater ability to navigate the university landscape. This paper offers an innovative approach to the evaluation of language programs that will be relevant to those teaching and researching linguistically diverse cohorts across faculties in higher education.

‘Good for you!’ Processing social emotions in L2 discourse comprehension: an ERP study

AbstractSocial factors impact sentence comprehension in a first language (L1), suggesting that semantic processing cannot be dissociated from social and moral emotions in relation to pro/antisocial individuals. Given that integrating multiple types of information and processing emotion-laden pragmatic information is costlier in a second language (L2), we investigated whether social factors would affect discourse comprehension similarly in L2. Processing the outcomes of scenarios involving pro/antisocial protagonists provoked similar neural patterns in L2 as in L1 (Rodríguez-Gómez, Martín-Loeches, Colmenares, Romero Ferreiro & Moreno, 2020), suggesting that L2 users simultaneously integrate semantic and discourse-pragmatic information during sentence comprehension.

“The message is clear”: An L1 business perspective on non-target-like formulaic expressions in L2 German

AbstractThis study examines how non-target-like formulaic expressions used by advanced second language (L2) speakers of German are perceived by first language (L1) German business professionals in an intercultural workplace setting. By using an experimental design, we explore how L1 business professionals (N = 84) perceive the appropriateness and acceptability of the non-target-like expressions as well as how they perceive the communicative competence of the writer in two conditions: one in which the writer is explicitly described as an L2 user of German (intercultural condition), and one in which the writer is not (German condition). Moreover, by first establishing recurrent unconventionalities when L2 users create their own formulaic expressions (i.e., misspellings, grammatical errors, pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic infelicities), we examine the effect of the type of unconventionality. Our experimental stimuli are based on authentic student responses to situations in an intercultural workplace setting which were elicited through a written discourse completion task. Our results indicate that in both conditions expressions containing a grammatical error are judged as least acceptable, followed by those with a pragmatic infelicity. Ratings were significantly higher in the intercultural condition, suggesting tolerance of the L1 professionals towards non-target-like expressions of L2 users.

L2 motivation and willingness to communicate: a moderated mediation model of psychological shyness

Abstract Psychological factors involved in learning a second language (L2) present a considerable interest for applied linguistics researchers and language educators. This study adopted the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) framework to examine links between L2 motivation, willingness to communicate in the target language (L2WTC), classroom environment (L2CE) and psychological shyness of Chinese learners of English. The study posited that L2 motivation would be positively associated with L2WTC and that L2CE would mediate this relationship. It was further proposed that the L2MSS → L2CE → L2WTC nexus would be moderated by the language learners’ psychological shyness. Data were collected from 846 (N = 846) learners of English as a foreign language in three large state universities in China and analysed using rigorous statistical methods. The findings indicated that L2MSS was positively associated with L2WTC and that L2CE mediated the association between the two constructs. Furthermore, psychological shyness moderated the first and the second links in the L2MSS → L2CE → L2WTC nexus. These findings have notable pedagogical implications, such as the need to help students generate a positive self-image as an L2 user, to provide encouragement to the shy students and to create an inclusive and supportive classroom environment.

Students' attitudes towards teacher's use of Vietnamese in EFL classrooms at Vietnam National University Hanoi, International School

The role of L1 in L2 classrooms has without any doubt been the hot topic of debates and discussions. In particular, some linguists and educators do not support the use of L1 in teaching L2, whereas others emphasize the importance of L1 in L2 classes. Although studies have been done on both teachers’ and students’ attitudes toward L1 use in the L2 classroom, it still remains the question of when and how L1 can become an effective supporting tool for L2. The goal of this research is to present the results on the functionality of L1 (Vietnamese language) in L2 (EFL) classrooms under students’ perspectives. A survey questionnaire was designed to deliver to participants for the study: 126 students at the intermediate level of the General English program at Vietnam National University Hanoi, International School (VNU-IS). The study's findings indicated that the VNU-IS student participants were satisfied with their teacher’s use of L1. L1 usage was also discovered to be preferred for the following purposes: language functionality, managerial functionality, effective functionality, and social functionality. Among them, language functionality is most favored by VNU-IS students. The results also revealed that Vietnamese should be considered as a backup rather than a barrier for Vietnamese teachers.

Continuous speech segmentation by L1 and L2 speakers of English: the role of syntactic and prosodic cues

We investigated how native and fluent users of English segment continuous speech and to what extent they use sound-related and structure-related cues. As suggested by the notion of multi-competence, L1 users are not seen as ideal models with perfect command of English, and L2 users not as lacking in competence. We wanted to see how language experience affects speech segmentation. We had participants listen to extracts of spontaneous spoken English and asked them to mark boundaries between speech segments. We found that in chunking authentic speech, both groups made the most use of prosody, with L1 users relying slightly more on it. However, the groups did not differ in segmentation strategies and performed alike in efficiency and agreement. Results show that in line with multi-competence, native speakers do not have an advantage over fluent speakers in higher-level speech processes, and that the outcome of natural speech comprehension does not significantly depend on the different language experiences at high levels of fluency. We suggest that research on speech segmentation should take natural continuous speech on board and investigate fluent users independently of their L1s to gain a more holistic view of processes and consequences of speech segmentation.

The impact of foreign accent on irony and its consequences on social interaction

ABSTRACT Literature has shown that foreign-accented (FA) speech modulates the degree of irony perceived by native (NA) individuals, but the subsequent consequences it may have on social interaction are unknown. To address this question, we presented Spanish first language (L1) users with written contexts with ironic/literal praises allocated to either a NA or a FA speaker. Written modality was used to avoid disfluency and to examine the impact of expectations of non-L1 comprehension on irony processing. For each of the 104 contexts, participants had to (1) assess the degree of irony of the speaker’s praise inserted in the context, (2) assess the speaker’s level of friendliness and (3) indicate the level of correctness of the response given to the ironic/literal comment. Results indicate that the speaker’s identity modulates the degree of perceived irony as well as the perceived appropriateness of the responses given to ironic comments, even when the accent is not experienced. The theory proposed to account for the findings is that the expectation one has of a foreign individual’s speech affects language processing that leads to misinterpretations, which may, consequently, deteriorate social interaction between L1 and LX users.

Developing practices for first-time encounters: Pursuing mutual understanding and relational achievement in conversations-for-learning

A first-time encounter is an important opportunity for creating social networks, as participants routinely conduct self-presentations during this occasion. Second-language (L2) users, however, face particular difficulties engaging in first-time encounters; but no studies have examined how L2 users’ self-presentational practices develop over time. To fill this gap, this study investigates how an L2 English user calibrates her interactional practices to conduct self-presentations during first-time encounters. The participants were a senior Thai student attending a Thai college and six English instructors whom she met for the first time in a series of dyadic conversations-for-learning over a two-month period. Conversation analysis revealed how the focal participant displayed her orientations toward intersubjective and relational issues, resulting in better recognition of the initiating action. She then accordingly calibrated her response designs over time to resolve repeated intersubjective issues and ensure relational achievement during self-presentational sequences. The results suggest pedagogical implications for learning self-introduction practices.

Path Under Construction: Challenges Beyond S-Framed Motion Event Construal in L2 German

The encoding of motion events is known to be challenging for second language (L2) users, particularly if the lexicalization patterns of their first language (L1) diverge from those of the L2. This paper analyzes oral and written motion event descriptions produced by advanced L2 users of German, an information-dense satellite-framed language. Based on L2 usage and error patterns, we discuss six major challenges with respect to motion event encoding and, more specifically, path encoding. These challenges clearly go beyond event construal and the acquisition of the basic satellite-framed lexicalization pattern (e.g., verb semantics) as well as beyond expected challenges related to the use of prepositional phrases (e.g., prepositional semantics, case marking). Advanced L2 users actually particularly struggle with “smaller” path encoding devices such as particles, locative and directional adverbs, their formal and functional differentiation, their usage patterns and combinatorial potential. These aspects seem to be challenging for advanced L2 users of German with either verb-framed L1s (French, Spanish) or satellite-framed L1s (Danish, English). We therefore discuss characteristics of the target language input that might explain why L2 users struggle with identifying and differentiating these path encoding devices, their usage, and combinatorial patterns. We sketch potential implications for L2 teaching.

What factors predict perceived nativelikeness in long-term L2 users?

This study investigated what psychological and social factors predict ‘perceived nativelikeness’ in late second language (L2) learners of French (L1 Swedish) ( N = 62) with a minimum length of residence (LOR) of 5 years in France. The included factors were: language aptitude (LLAMA), acculturation (VIA), personality (MPQ), target language engagement and social networks (number of relations in L2). LOR and Length of French studies were also included as extraneous variables. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that positive effects were found for LLAMA D (sound recognition), acculturation (VIA France and VIA Sweden), number of relations in L2 and LOR. A negative effect was found for the personality variable Social initiative. The strongest effects were found for LLAMA D, Social initiative and LOR. All variables together explained 25% (adjusted R²) of the variance in the sample, which represents medium-sized effects in relation to other studies on individual factors. In sum, these findings confirm results from earlier studies on the importance of language aptitude and acculturation in late L2 acquisition. They also add evidence of the importance of personality, social networks, and LOR. On a more general note psychological and social factors combine to explain different outcomes in adult L2 acquisition, although the effects of psychological variables are deemed somewhat stronger.

A poetic inquiry into a Japanese pre-service teacher’s English language learning trajectory: Pedagogical and methodological implications for teacher education

This qualitative, case-study research explores the English language learning history of a Japanese pre-service teacher by analysing five English-language poems and a self-reflective essay regarding her experiences of learning the target language. The methodology chosen in this study was a poetic inquiry through which the investigator reconstructed and analysed the writer’s subject position expressed in the actual descriptions of each poem. The self-reflection essay was also thematically analysed to examine how the participant saw and understood her learning experiences. Research findings showed that the poems illustrated here expressed both positive and negative emotions concerning her personally meaningful experiences of learning English as well as presented her identities as a second language (L2) learner and an L2 user. This study also revealed that, from a future English teacher’s viewpoint, she described in the essay some potential problems of teaching English in the classroom in response to her L2 learning experiences. Overall, the task of poetry writing was a meaningful literacy and reflective practice through which the participant was able to reconsider her L2 learning experiences and explore more effective ways to learn English as a life-long learner. In addition, she could benefit from these experiences in her role as a future language teacher.

Text recall and use of advance organisers in first and second language

AbstractPrevious research identified that studying texts in a second language (L2) as opposed to the first (L1) results in substantially weaker recall. We hypothesized that use of advance organizers (AOs) might attenuate this L2 recall cost by supporting L2 users in the construction of more solid memory representations. One hundred Dutch-English bilinguals studied two texts in either L1 or L2, and with or without the help of a mind map. The previously reported L2 cost was replicated, with lower recall scores in L2 relative to L1. Whereas L1 and L2 students were equally aided by AO use, the initial cost dissipated when comparing L2 test scores in the AO condition with those of L1 in the non-AO condition. We therefore conclude that employing AOs does not entirely diminish L2 disadvantages but brings L2 students up to the initial level of L1 students.

The design of requests by adult L2 users with emergent literacy

ABSTRACT Adopting the methods of multimodal conversation analysis, this study demonstrates that adult second language (L2) users with emergent literacy formulate requests as ‘complex multimodal Gestalts’ consisting prototypically of deictic or depictive gestures combined with gaze, situationally relevant material, and vocal or linguistic resources. The data obtained for this study are from classroom interactions and out-of-class service encounters that were conducted as part of pedagogical tasks in the context of integration training for adult L2 students with emergent literacy. The analysis shows how co-constructed request sequences typically involve multimodal negotiation in which the co-participants support L2 users to formulate requests that are understandable and that contribute to the progressivity of the interaction. The findings contribute to an understanding of practical requests as multimodal, context-sensitive, collaborative actions and underline the importance of this perspective especially from the view of L2 users with emergent literacy.

A corpus-based investigation on noun phrase complexity in L1 and L2 English writing

Since the 1990s, grammatical complexity has received considerable attention in different fields of L2 studies, for instance, second language acquisition (SLA) and L2 writing. While over the past three decades grammatical complexity has frequently been represented by clausal structures in L2 writing, since the beginning of the 2010s scholars have increasingly paid attention to phrasal features. We conducted this study to investigate how the use of noun phrases is associated with L1- and L2-English language backgrounds in academic writing. Noun phrase complexity was operationalized to the 11 noun modifiers (e.g., premodifying nouns, relative clauses, prepositional phrases) proposed in Biber, Gray and Poonpon (2011). A Chi-square test followed by a residual analysis was used to statistically analyze noun phrases in the two corpora. The results demonstrate that there is an association between the use of noun phrases and whether the author is an L1 or L2 user of English. The L1 essays have diverse patterns of noun phrases, whereas the L2 essays have compressed structures of noun phrases. A qualitative analysis of the corpora reveals repeated cases of phrasal modifiers in the L2 essays. Pedagogical implications are provided for academic writing courses for L1 and L2 students.

Testing the pedagogical norm

AbstractEnglish as a foreign language (EFL) textbooks typically present a prescriptive typology of three or four conditional types. We examine the extent to which this long-established English Language Teaching (ELT) typology is reflected in four varieties of English by comparing the forms and functions of four samples of 620if-conditionals from French school EFL textbooks (TEC-Fr), French L1 Learner English (OpenCLC-Fr), Web English (EnTenTen15-S) and British English (BNC-S). The ELT typology accounts for considerably less than half ofif-sentences in the reference data. Even in the EFL textbooks, only 57% ofif-conditionals match the typology explicitly taught in their grammar sections. For many formal and functional features, the learner data sits halfway between the distributions of the textbook and reference data. We conclude that the ELT typology needs to be adapted to provide a more representative account ofif-conditionals that focuses on L1 and L2 usage and meaning over form.

Insertion of the voiceless fricative [s] at word-final position in Japanese English

ABSTRACT This article explains how the voiceless fricative [s], or what we refer to as ‘special [s],’ occurs in free talk produced by Japanese speakers of English and what this means for the current understanding of Japanese English. The discussion is based on a small corpus compiled by the authors from recordings. The findings are threefold. The special [s] is always voiceless, occurs only word-finally, and arises from four different pragmatic forces. These forces are discourse marker, hesitation, cause and effect, and expression of self. The definition of Japanese English has been built heavily on the influence of the first language (L1) on the second language (L2). While L1 transfer is integral to L2 English production, the present article supplements this view by disclosing facts about what L2 users do while they are engaged in speaking in English; that is, in usage events.

PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION ERROR ANALYSIS OF UNDERGRADUATE ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDENTS IN SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA

This paper investigates phonemic transcription errors of L2 learners of English, using the undergraduate students of the Department of English Language, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria, as case study and compares performance across levels and phonemes. Twenty (20) randomly selected respondents from each of the four undergraduate levels - a total of eighty (80) participants, were asked to do a phonemic transcription of a researcher-crafted text of two sentences comprising all the 44 English phonemes and one purposively infused triphthong. The Daniel Jones’s (2011) Cambridge Pronouncing Dictionary was used as standard in grading the test. The transcriptions were then closely studied, categorized, and analysed. Findings show that L2 learners and users of English committed errors of Substitution (259, 41%), Addition (87, 13%), Replacement (66, 10%), and Omission of Sounds (33, 05%) out of the 675 transcription errors identified. None (00%) out of the 80 participants was able to transcribe the triphthong sound correctly, amounting to 12% of the total errors; while three specific transcription rules, namely the rule of realizing strong vowel sounds in function words as schwa /ə/ which was abandoned in 150 instances (22% of total errors), mostly in ‘and’ and ‘to’; the rule of not realizing vowels as schwa in content words which they applied indiscriminately; and the rule of double slashes inserted at the beginning and the end of a transcribed sentence which none of them observed. The study also finds 60% of vowel errors and 40% of consonant errors, while out of all 44 phonemes, all respondents got only nine (9) consonant sounds correctly, indicating that respondents face greater difficulty with the English vowel sounds. It is concluded that these errors are due mostly to interference and non-adherence to rules symptomized in incorrect articulation and erroneous transcription. Finally, this study emphasizes the crucial role of error analysis in L2 language learning and development as it provides useful insights into the nature of errors, and points at implications for curriculum improvement, pragmatic methodologies and technology application in language teaching and learning.<p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/edu_01/0918/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

Embodied Semantics in a Second Language: An Interdisciplinary Review

Abstract This review focuses on embodied semantic theories of language, which assume a concomitant activation of sensorimotor areas during verbal processing. Behavioural and functional studies showing the influence of semantic treatment on perceptuo- and sensori-motor cortices are here presented. We focus on embodiment of the second language (L2) in bilingual subjects which, contrary to the native language (L1) embodiment, has been much less addressed. After providing current models of bilingual language processing, we will consider factors which may explain different depths of embodiment of L2, as observed in several studies. In particular, we will provide insight into proficiency (i.e. the ability one has in L2 usage), immersion (i.e. the degree of exposure to L2) and the age of acquisition of L2. We will also provide suggestions regarding the potential expansion of knowledge in this domain: embodied semantics research in bilinguals might give a boost to therapeutic approaches to the rehabilitation of bilingual aphasic patients. Lastly, considerations are presented about theoretical as well as practical implications for translation research.

Evidentiality in Turkish as L2: Evidence from the final attainment of Russian immigrants

The study examines use of evidentiality in the Turkish language, which requires the activation of the morphology-pragmatics interface, by Russian L1 immigrants, who are advanced L2 users of Turkish. The data were collected via using a narrative, discourse completion and grammaticality judgement task. Quantitative and qualitative inter-group analyses were conducted. The findings have revealed that the use of Turkish evidential markers of the Russian immigrant group shows differences in their use and grammaticality judgement of evidentiality in Turkish when they are compared with native Turkish speakers. Our findings suggest that evidentiality in Turkish is challenging even for advanced L2 users.