Khalkhin Gol Research Articles

Mongolian sculptor Tsevegmid Amgalan and the monument dedicated to the victory in the battle on the Khalkhin Gol River

Mongolian sculptor Tsevegmid Amgalan and the monument dedicated to the victory in the battle on the Khalkhin Gol River

Военные утопии на советском экране

The article is devoted to the history of the military utopia genre in the Soviet cinema of the 1920s-1930s. The work analyses its origins, provides an overview and analysis of the main films belonging to this genre, and examines the reasons for its decline. According to the author of the article, this film genre had its origins in the military-utopian genre in literature, which declared itself in the second half of the 19th century. The genre appeared to be directly dependent on the political situation in the country and the nature of the military threat. Thus, the understanding that World War I would be followed by a new war was reflected in many works of Soviet writers and filmmakers who developed this genre. Its peak was in the second half of the 1930s. The genre was based on the postulate that the enemy was not asleep, there would definitely be a war, and therefore it was necessary to prepare for it. In addition to this general concept, the audience was shown the likely course of a future war: after the harsh suppression of enemy aggression on the USSR territory, the fighting would move to the enemy’s territory. The enemy who first attacked the USSR would be thrown back in the shortest possible time, and then with the help of the oppressed people of a foreign country, the government would be brought down and the socialist system would be established. 1939 appeared to be the last year for the release of military utopias, for which there were several reasons. The first was the signing of the Molotov — Ribbentrop Pact. The second reason was the beginning of actual hostilities at Khalkhin Gol and Lake Khasan, which showed a far from rosy picture regarding the combat state of the Soviet troops and the weakness of the enemy. The Winter War with Finland in 1939 put an end to optimistic military fantasies.

В. П. Ставский – фронтовой корреспондент газеты «Героическая красноармейская» (к 85-летию событий на р. Халхин-Гол)

Army newspaper “Geroicheskaya krasnoarmeyskaya” edited by D. I. Ortenberg covered the fighting of the Workers and Peasants' Red Army in the Khalkhin Gol area. The best front-line correspondent was V. P. Stavsky. He was also the most famous and highest-ranking writer in the USSR. Ortenberg and Stavsky turned the combat leaflet into a highly professional newspaper read by soldiers on the front lines. Stavsky created a permanent column “Heroes of Khalkhin Gol”. His essays and reports educated soldiers, commanders and political workers.

ОПЫТ ДЕЙСТВИЙ БРОНЕТАНКОВЫХ ВОЙСК КРАСНОЙ АРМИИ НА ХАСАНЕ И ХАЛХИН-ГОЛЕ: РЕФЛЕКСИИ ВОЕННОЙ ЭЛИТЫ

In the article, based on documents from the collections of the Russian State Military Archive (RGVA), an attempt is made to analyze the process of understanding by representatives of the Red Army command the experience of the actions of Armored forces during local military conflicts at lake Khasan and Khalkhin Gol river in 1938–1939. The conclusions made by commanders at various levels, in general, accurately recorded the main shortcomings and errors in the use of tank units and formations, which completely repeated those during the Civil War in Spain. It is concluded that by the time the conflicts began, that experience was unknown to tank and combined arms commanders. In addition, based on content analysis, the inability of specialists to assess the weak armoring of tanks is revealed as the main reason for heavy losses. Attention is drawn to the fact that while correctly recording the extremely low level of training of commanders and personnel of the tank forces, the final conclusions of the reports to the higher command contained exceptionally high assessments of combat effectiveness and assurances of readiness to carry out any order. At the same time, the country’s top military-political leadership received a sufficient amount of truthful information from its representatives from the conflict zone, but preferred to broadcast to the public a picture of the highest combat readiness of the armored forces, which was clearly and convincingly reflected in mass Soviet culture.

Military Medical Training at the Central Institute for the Advanced Medical Education in the Second Half of the 1930s

The paper describes the initial stage in the organization of military medical training at the Central Institutefor Advanced Medical Education (CIAME), now the Russian Medical Academy for Continuous Professional Educationat the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow. The problem statement in this study is the first of itskind in Russian historiography. The research relied on the documents found in the Russian State Archive of Scientificand Technical Documentation and the Archive of the Russian Medical Academy of Continuous Professional Education.The decision to establish a military medical department at the CIAME was made in 1936. The authors identified the main tasks and challenges the new department had to face, as well as solution methods, areas of theoretical and practical training,and curriculum. The article also describes the role of the CIAME in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and the WinterWar of 1939–1940. In the second half of the 1930s, the CIAME medical staff acquired experience in military medicaltraining and medical care in combat conditions, which proved invaluable during the Great Patriotic War of 1941–1945.

Japan in <I>Murzilka</I> Magazine (1924–2021)

The article attempts to generalize and analyze the materials dedicated to Japan, its folklore, culture, and literature in the children’s literary and art magazine Murzilka since its founding up to the present time. It traces the evolution of the image of Japan in the pages of the magazine for almost a hundred years, taking into consideration the historical circumstances, the SovietJapanese relations, the change in the approach to showing the peculiarities of daily life of other peoples in children’s literature. One can single out five periods of interest towards Japan in the magazine. In the second half of the 1920s, there is no unity in the image of Japan. Individual publications present it either as a capitalist country, where even small children must work, or as a collection of clichés (geishas, national clothing, Boys’ Day). The topic of Japanese aggression in China appears. During the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, the clashes at Lake Hassan and Khalkhin Gol, as well as during the first year after the war with Japan, the abstract “Japanese” are presented as aggressors, enslavers of the Chinese people, fascists encroaching on Soviet borders. The class nature of the Japan-China conflict and the liberating nature of the war against Japan are emphasized. While the Neutrality Pact between the USSR and Japan was in effect, the “Japanese” material was absent from the magazine. In the period of the Thaw, Japan turns out to be a country with an interesting and peculiar culture. In 1955–1966, the magazine publishes poems and songs by Japanese poets, fairy tales, descriptions of folk festivals and daily life, the kamishibai “paper theater”. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Japan fascinates the readers of Murzilka with its unity of material and spiritual culture, presented in ikebana, origami, and tea ceremony. In the publications of 1991–2001, this is a country existing outside of time, and the life of the Japanese is based on ancient traditions and exquisite festivals. In 2016–2021, Japan is presented, first and foremost, by daily life culture. Besides, for the first time during the existence of the magazine, the topic of technical progress appears.

The Khalkhin Gol Conflict and Japan’s Foreign Policy in 1939 – early 1941 (Review of Japanese Historiography)

The authors look into the history and events of the Khalkhin Gol war through the prism of political and economic processes in East Asia, using rare historical sources that usually fall under the radar of most researchers. The Japanese troops in the Khalkha River area stopped hostilities due to the position of the country’s top politicians. The authors show that decisions of the Japanese government were determined by China's unyielding resistance against the aggression and the difficult economic situation in Japan, which had lost access to a number of foreign markets after 1 September 1939, causing its interest in the Soviet Trans-Siberian Railway as an alternative route for trade with Europe including Germany. Moreover, the authors point out that one of the key factors that prompted Japanese leadership to agree to peace negotiations with Moscow and stop escalating the military aggression against the USSR was the effectiveness of the Red Army’s actions in Khalkhin Gol. At the same time, Japan’s military expenses significantly increased as a result of the Nomongan conflict. However, as the article proves by concrete examples, the Japanese militarists did not fully abandon their plans of a war against USSR. At the same time, the authors demonstrate that by 1941 Japanese military leaders had reached a dead end in their strategic planning against Soviet Union. Their projects turned out to be inefficient for tasks and goals that had emerged as a result of the Red Army’s victory at Khalkhin Gol.

Монголия в историографическом наследии профессора И. И. Кузнецова

Goals. The article aims to determine the place of Mongolia and plots related to the history of this country in works of the famous Soviet and Russian historian Ilya I. Kuznetsov, to evaluate his contribution to the study of the military conflict between the Red Army and armed forces of Japan in 1939 at the River of Khalkhin, and to characterize the role of I. Kuznetsov in preparing the memoirs of Yu. Tsedenbal. Materials and methods. The article analyzes memoirs and correspondence of I. Kuznetsov, materials of periodicals and mainly scientific works of the historian dealing with exploits of Soviet and Mongolian soldiers during the conflict on the Khalkhin Gol River. The methodology employed — in addition to the general scientific method of analysis — includes special historical research methods, i.e. the retrospective and chronological ones. Results. The study determines the chronological framework of issues related to events on the Khalkhin Gol River and studied by I. Kuznetsov — from mid-1960s to mid-1980s. The scholar prepared a number of articles and monographs that forever inscribed his name in the historiography of the events at Khalkhin Gol. Assistance in the preparation of Yu. Tsedenbal’s memoirs also became an important and interesting part of the historian’s scientific path, although this work remained unfinished. Conclusions. The study shows that despite issues of Mongolian history were not central to the scientific endeavors of I. Kuznetsov, his insights into the events on the Khalkhin Gol River were important in developing another research interest of the historian — destinies of Heroes of the Soviet Union and feats accomplished by soldiers of the Soviet and Mongolian armies. Publications of I. Kuznetsov’s works in the Mongolian People’s Republic and the Soviet Union unequivocally attest to the significance of his academic efforts aimed at exploring destinies of the heroes of Khalkhin Gol. This is confirmed by the very fact the scholar was invited to assist Yu. Tsedenbal in writing the latter’s memoirs. I. Kuznetsov was a historian with diverse scientific interests who with genuine enthusiasm tackled new research topics. The Mongolian theme is undoubtedly a significant contribution to his scientific background. And for the Mongolian people proper, the perpetuation of their compatriots’ feats in the conflict at Khalkhin Gol was of great importance.

Khalkhin Gol — a Unifying Factor in the History of Russia and Mongolia

The goal of the article is to define the development of the RussianMongolian collaboration in such an important sector as military that started in 1930s amidst the complication of the international situation brought about by the open aggression of the military Japan. The study is based on data from collection of documents and the materials of the Russian State Archive of SocialPolitical History. The research showed that the political and military integration was activated as a result of the marked aggravation of the international situation in the Far East at the beginning of the 1930s due to the Japanese aggression in China, the establishment of the marionette state Mandzhou-Go at the borders of Russia and Mongolia and the emergence of the direct threat to Mongolia and the Soviet territories. It was in the Mongolian steppes, in the Khalkhin-Gol battles for freedom of the Mongolian people where the becoming of the general G.K. Zhukov occurred. Under his command there was an effective interaction of Soviet-Mongolian military units that led to gaining a valuable experience in the allied forces combat.

Российско-монгольское сотрудничество в военной сфере (1930-е годы)

Goals. The article investigates Russian-Mongolian military cooperation in the 1930s. Methods and Materials. The work examines collected documents and materials housed by the Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History. Results and Conclusions. The early 1930s were characterized by the aggravation of the international situation in the Far East: Japan attacked China and occupied a considerable territory. Japan’s external policy was turning more and more towards expansionism, giving rise to sentiments to seize mainland territories which meant а direct threat to Mongolia and Soviet regions. So, the period witnessed a series of regular top-level meetings between the Soviet and Mongolian governments. The Kremlin negotiations of November 1934 proved essential enough for the further development of Soviet-Mongolian military and political cooperation. The Kremlin, thus, took the strategic lead and got actively involved in Mongolian affairs. Records of the Soviet-Mongolian negotiations of November 27 underline the vital need for Mongolia to have strong national armed forces, and report the expediency of signing non-aggression and mutual respect treaties was being discussed. The Protocol of mutual assistance between the USSR and the MPR of 12 March 1936 set a new global trend for intergovernmental cooperation and strategic partnership in the context of increasing international tensions. Active joint military actions against imperialist Japan in 1939 at Khalkhin Gol, efficient coordination of foreign policy steps thus became an important stabilizing factor in the region, being a bright page in the history of relations between the countries.

Military and Diplomatic History of the Khalkhin Gol War of 1939: New Concept of Mongolian Historian and Government Leader - R. Bold (Review of R. Bolds book «Limited War: The Military-Diplomatic History of the Battle at the Khalkhin Gol River». Moscow, The whole world, 2019. 568 p.)

More than 80 years have passed since notorious military events on the Khalkhin-Gol river in which four states took part: on the one hand, Japan and Manchukuo, on the other, the USSR and Mongolia. International scientific conferences were timed to coincide with this event, a lot of research was done, and relevant scientific papers were published. One of them was the book of Doctor of Historical Science R. Bold, «Limited War: The Military Diplomatic History of the Battle of the Khalkhin-Gol River», published by the Whole World Publishing House (2019 - 568 pp.), which proposed a slightly different interpretation of the historical battles at the Khalkhin-Gol river (May-September 1939). This article is a brief analysis of this book and a kind of review of it.

To remember

Оn the eve of the 75th anniversary of the Victory, the opening of a new large militarypatriotic park, which will play an important role in the patriotic education of generations, seems extremely urgent. A separate exposition in the Patriot Park is dedicated to battles on the river. Khalkhin Gol. Mongolia is one of Russia's permanent friendly partners in the East, in 2019 in connection with the celebration of the 80th anniversary of pain on the river. Khalkhin-Gol Mongolia was visited by the President of Russia V. V. Putin. This exposition will become the only permanent museum exhibition in Russia dedicated to these legendary events and will serve to strengthen and maintain friendly relations between the two countries.

The Contribution of Scientists of the Kirov Military Medical Academy to the Development of Military Transfusiology, in Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of Professor S.V. Ryzhkov

June 23, 2019 marks the 100th anniversary of the birth of prominent Russian transfusiologist, professor, student of academic V.N. Shamov, participant of the Stalingrad Battle Semyon Vavilovich Ryzhkov (1919-2004). He was the one who established the Russian Ministry of Defense Blood Service. In 1961, he founded the Research Laboratory of Fibrinolysis Blood and Tissue Preservation, which since 1964 bears the name of the Blood and Tissue Center. He had been the head of the Center for20 years. His academic interests covered such issues as the use of hemodialysis in acute renal failure, the cryopreservation of red blood cells and bone marrow, which brought him the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics State Prize in 1978, the substantiation of the safety of a 400 ml blood donation, and the use of donor hardware plasmacytopheresis. The article presents data on the contribution of the scientists of the Military Medical Academy to the development of the national blood transfusion service from the 2nd half of the XIX century till the establishment of the Ministry of Defense Blood Service in 1965. June 21, 1919V.N. Shamov, N.N. Elansky, and I.R. Petrov carried out the first donor and recipient matching blood transfusion in Russia. They contributed a lot to teaching medical practitioners to do blood type tests. In 1926, N.N.Yelansky was the first in Russia to publish the study Blood Transfusion. In 1944, V.N.Shamov was the first in Russia to publish The Blood Transfusion Manual for Military Doctors. On the battlefields of Lake Hassan, the Khalkhin Gol River, and in Spain, the surgeons of the Military Medical Academy proved the universal type 0 blood transfusion to be a successful technique. The opinions of scientists on blood donation and preservation, indications and contraindications to blood transfusion in peacetime and wartime are presented.

A New Interpretation of the History of the Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 or a Subjective Assessment of the Researcher?

The author of the book, O.S. Smyslov, interprets the military events in the area of the Khalkhin Gol river in 1939, defines the causes of the war, the role of commanders, military casualties and participants of military actions. The battle of Khalkhin Gol becomes the subject of much attention and study of Russian and Mongolian historians, especially the most complex and controversial issues of military and diplomatic history. Most of the research is original and contributes significantly to the interpretation of the military conflict, its geopolitical nature and its role in the world history of the 20th century. A new interpretation of the role of Georgy Zhukov in the crushing defeat of the Japanese troops at Khalkhin Gol is proposed in the monograph of the military historian O.S. Smyslov. The author of the book made an attempt to downplay and misrepresent the participation of Zhukov in the historical events. The author’s approach to the cause of the military conflict is critically examined as well as the methodology of historical research. The author of the review believes that the attempt of a new interpretation of the war in the Khalkhin Gol area is controversial and historically unconvincing. The matter merits professional discussion. There is a need to make a special encyclopedia, “The Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939”, which will enable to avoid misrepresentation of the tragic and heroic military events of history of the USSR and Russia of the 20th century.

The War of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact

For the first time in Russian historiography, the article draws attention to the connection of the War of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and the conclusion of the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact of 1939. For a long time, historical science considered these two major events in the history of the USSR and history of the world individually, without their historic relationship. The authors made an attempt to provide evidence of this relationship, showing the role that surrounding and defeating the Japanese army at Khalkhin Gol in August 1939 and signing in Moscow of the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact played in the history of the world. The study analyzes the foreign policy of the USSR in Europe, the reasons for the failure in the conclusion of the Anglo-Franco-Soviet military union in 1939 and the circumstances of the Pact. It shows the interrelation between the defeat of the Japanese troops at Khalkhin Gol and the need for the Soviet-German treaty. The authors describe the historic consequences of the conclusion of the pact for the further development of the Japanese-German relations and the course of the Second World War. They also present the characteristics of the views of these historical events in the Russian historiography.

Caught between states: Urjin Garmaev and the conflicting loyalties of trans-border Buryats

ABSTRACTFollowing the personal history of one individual, this chapter aims to highlight the fears, hopes and considerations of trans-border Buryat–Mongols ‘caught between States’ during the ideological, political and territorial splits of the 1920–1940s in North Asia. Through discussion of the life of General Urjin Garmaev and his changing loyalties I show how investigating loyalty introduces a new framework for understanding the relationship between emigrant groups and the political interactions of the Soviet Union, Mongolian People’s Republic and Manchukuo. Rival states manipulated frontier populations and used their intense cross-border kinship ties for military tactics and spying. This culminated dramatically in 1939 when Buryat soldiers (all from one small area) found themselves fighting against each other in three different armies at the battle of Khalkhin Gol / Nomonhan.

New Questions on the Battle of Khalkhin Gol (Nomonhan)

Mongolian Journal of International Affairs Vol.19 2014: 49-55

The Soviet Union and the threat from the East, 1933-41: Moscow, Tokyo and the prelude to the Pacific War

Preface - Negotiation from Weakness to Negotiation from Strength, 1933-34 - Deterrence and Attempted Detente, 1934-36 - The Chinese Communist Party and the Comintern - The Sino-Japanese War and Soviet Aid to China, 1937 - Frontier Fighting: Lake Khasan and Khalkhin Gol, 1938-39 - The Tables are Turned: Japan Appeases Russia, 1939-41 - Conclusion - Index

The Great Buddha of the Khalkha River

The Khalkha River (Khalkhin Gol), which forms part of the north-east frontier between the Mongolian People–s Republic (MPR) and the People's Republic of China (PRC), is famous in Mongolian history for the 1939 Battle of Khalkhin Gol (Nomonhan), in which joint Mongolian-Soviet forces finally repulsed the attempted invasion of the MPR by the Japanese Army of Manchukuo. Less well known, however, is the existence on the left bank of that river of one of Mongolia's most interesting religious antiquities, the remains of a gigantic Buddhist statue, known as the Great Buddha (Ikh Burkhan).