Intraerythrocytic Developmental Cycle Research Articles

Systematic analysis of natural antibody responses to P. falciparum merozoite antigens by protein arrays

With the completion of the functional genome, merozoite proteome and stage-specific transcriptomes of the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle of Plasmoidum falciparum, the development of new vaccine candidates targeting Plasmodium merozoites is now possible. Here we report using protein array technology to detect antibody responses to Plasmodium merozoite proteins by screening the serum of Plasmodium-exposed individuals. A total of 138 genes encoding P. falciparum merozoite proteins were cloned using the In-Fusion cloning method and expressed using a wheat germ cell-free system (WGCF). These proteins were then screened with serum from Plasmodium-exposed individuals and unexposed subjects using protein arrays. A total of 30 highly immunoreactive merozoite antigens were identified (21.7% of 138 target proteins), including 10 well-characterized blood-stage vaccine candidates for P. falciparum. In addition, we report for the first time 7 proteins (MSP3.5, MRSP2, ETRAMP11.2, ETRAMP14.1 and RALP1, and two hypothetical proteins PFA0210c and PF14_0572) as being immunologically reactive. These novel Plasmodium merozoite antigens may be potential vaccine candidates for blood-stage malaria, and warrant further study.

Plasmodium falciparum Antigen 332 Is a Resident Peripheral Membrane Protein of Maurer's Clefts

During the intraerythrocytic development of Plasmodium falciparum, the malaria parasite remodels the host cell cytosol by inducing membranous structures termed Maurer's clefts and inserting parasite proteins into the red blood cell cytoskeleton and plasma membrane. Pf332 is the largest known asexual malaria antigen that is exported into the red blood cell cytosol where it associates with Maurer's clefts. In the current work, we have utilized a set of different biochemical assays to analyze the solubility of the endogenous Pf332 molecule during its trafficking from the endoplasmic reticulum within the parasite to the host cell cytosol. Solubilization studies demonstrate that Pf332 is synthesized and trafficked within the parasite as a peripheral membrane protein, which after export into the host cell cytosol associates with the cytoplasmic side of Maurer's clefts in a peripheral manner. By immunofluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry, we show that Pf332 persists in close association with Maurer's clefts throughout trophozoite maturation and schizogony, and does not become exposed at the host cell surface. Our data also indicate that Pf332 interacts with the host cell cytoskeleton, but only in very mature parasite stages. Thus, the present study describes Pf332 as a resident peripheral membrane protein of Maurer's clefts and suggests that the antigen participates in host cytoskeleton modifications at completion of the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle.

Temporal Expression and Localization Patterns of Variant Surface Antigens in Clinical Plasmodium falciparum Isolates during Erythrocyte Schizogony

Avoidance of antibody-mediated immune recognition allows parasites to establish chronic infections and enhances opportunities for transmission. The human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum possesses a number of multi-copy gene families, including var, rif, stevor and pfmc-2tm, which encode variant antigens believed to be expressed on the surfaces of infected erythrocytes. However, most studies of these antigens are based on in vitro analyses of culture-adapted isolates, most commonly the laboratory strain 3D7, and thus may not be representative of the unique challenges encountered by P. falciparum in the human host. To investigate the expression of the var, rif-A, rif-B, stevor and pfmc-2tm family genes under conditions that mimic more closely the natural course of infection, ex vivo clinical P. falciparum isolates were analyzed using a novel quantitative real-time PCR approach. Expression patterns in the clinical isolates at various time points during the first intraerythrocytic developmental cycle in vitro were compared to those of strain 3D7. In the clinical isolates, in contrast to strain 3D7, there was a peak of expression of the multi-copy gene families rif-A, stevor and pfmc-2tm at the young ring stage, in addition to the already known expression peak in trophozoites. Furthermore, most of the variant surface antigen families were overexpressed in the clinical isolates relative to 3D7, with the exception of the pfmc-2tm family, expression of which was higher in 3D7 parasites. Immunofluorescence analyses performed in parallel revealed two stage-dependent localization patterns of RIFIN, STEVOR and PfMC-2TM. Proteins were exported into the infected erythrocyte at the young trophozoite stage, whereas they remained inside the parasite membrane during schizont stage and were subsequently observed in different compartments in the merozoite. These results reveal a complex pattern of expression of P. falciparum multi-copy gene families during clinical progression and are suggestive of diverse functional roles of the respective proteins.

Stochastic Modeling of Expression Kinetics Identifies Messenger Half-Lives and Reveals Sequential Waves of Co-ordinated Transcription and Decay

The transcriptome in a cell is finely regulated by a large number of molecular mechanisms able to control the balance between mRNA production and degradation. Recent experimental findings have evidenced that fine and specific regulation of degradation is needed for proper orchestration of a global cell response to environmental conditions. We developed a computational technique based on stochastic modeling, to infer condition-specific individual mRNA half-lives directly from gene expression time-courses. Predictions from our method were validated by experimentally measured mRNA decay rates during the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle of Plasmodium falciparum. We then applied our methodology to publicly available data on the reproductive and metabolic cycle of budding yeast. Strikingly, our analysis revealed, in all cases, the presence of periodic changes in decay rates of sequentially induced genes and co-ordination strategies between transcription and degradation, thus suggesting a general principle for the proper coordination of transcription and degradation machinery in response to internal and/or external stimuli.

The role of chromatin in Plasmodium gene expression

The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum dynamically regulates transcription of the majority of its genes during its intraerythrocytic developmental cycle. Chromatin is an important contributor to this tight regulation of gene expression. P. falciparum appears to utilize most of the mechanisms of chromatin creation and modification found in other eukaryotes, although it occasionally uses them in surprising ways. Much of the P. falciparum genome is maintained in a euchromatic state, potentially permissive for transcription and heterochromatin appears to have a specialized role limited to silencing islands of genes involved in redundant host-parasite interactions. P. falciparum histones share canonical modifications with other eukaryotes but also have unique modifications of unknown function including hyperacetylations of two alternative histones possibly involved in gene regulation. Much of our knowledge of chromatin regulation of gene expression in P. falciparum derives from the study of virulence genes that are subject to chromatin regulatory mechanisms ranging from histone modifications and nucleosomal occupancy to non-protein-coding RNAs and subnuclear architecture. These mechanisms will be discussed along with other characterized components of P. falciparum chromatin.

Artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum is associated with an altered temporal pattern of transcription.

BackgroundArtemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria has emerged in Western Cambodia. This is a major threat to global plans to control and eliminate malaria as the artemisinins are a key component of antimalarial treatment throughout the world. To identify key features associated with the delayed parasite clearance phenotype, we employed DNA microarrays to profile the physiological gene expression pattern of the resistant isolates.ResultsIn the ring and trophozoite stages, we observed reduced expression of many basic metabolic and cellular pathways which suggests a slower growth and maturation of these parasites during the first half of the asexual intraerythrocytic developmental cycle (IDC). In the schizont stage, there is an increased expression of essentially all functionalities associated with protein metabolism which indicates the prolonged and thus increased capacity of protein synthesis during the second half of the resistant parasite IDC. This modulation of the P. falciparum intraerythrocytic transcriptome may result from differential expression of regulatory proteins such as transcription factors or chromatin remodeling associated proteins. In addition, there is a unique and uniform copy number variation pattern in the Cambodian parasites which may represent an underlying genetic background that contributes to the resistance phenotype.ConclusionsThe decreased metabolic activities in the ring stages are consistent with previous suggestions of higher resilience of the early developmental stages to artemisinin. Moreover, the increased capacity of protein synthesis and protein turnover in the schizont stage may contribute to artemisinin resistance by counteracting the protein damage caused by the oxidative stress and/or protein alkylation effect of this drug. This study reports the first global transcriptional survey of artemisinin resistant parasites and provides insight to the complexities of the molecular basis of pathogens with drug resistance phenotypes in vivo.

Quantitative Time-course Profiling of Parasite and Host Cell Proteins in the Human Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum

Studies of the Plasmodium falciparum transcriptome have shown that the tightly controlled progression of the parasite through the intra-erythrocytic developmental cycle (IDC) is accompanied by a continuous gene expression cascade in which most expressed genes exhibit a single transcriptional peak. Because the biochemical and cellular functions of most genes are mediated by the encoded proteins, understanding the relationship between mRNA and protein levels is crucial for inferring biological activity from transcriptional gene expression data. Although studies on other organisms show that <50% of protein abundance variation may be attributable to corresponding mRNA levels, the situation in Plasmodium is further complicated by the dynamic nature of the cyclic gene expression cascade. In this study, we simultaneously determined mRNA and protein abundance profiles for P. falciparum parasites during the IDC at 2-hour resolution based on oligonucleotide microarrays and two-dimensional differential gel electrophoresis protein gels. We find that most proteins are represented by more than one isoform, presumably because of post-translational modifications. Like transcripts, most proteins exhibit cyclic abundance profiles with one peak during the IDC, whereas the presence of functionally related proteins is highly correlated. In contrast, the abundance of most parasite proteins peaks significantly later (median 11 h) than the corresponding transcripts and often decreases slowly in the second half of the IDC. Computational modeling indicates that the considerable and varied incongruence between transcript and protein abundance may largely be caused by the dynamics of translation and protein degradation. Furthermore, we present cyclic abundance profiles also for parasite-associated human proteins and confirm the presence of five human proteins with a potential role in antioxidant defense within the parasites. Together, our data provide fundamental insights into transcript-protein relationships in P. falciparum that are important for the correct interpretation of transcriptional data and that may facilitate the improvement and development of malaria diagnostics and drug therapy.

Analysis of the Molecular Mechanisms Governing the Stage-Specific Expression of a Prototypical Housekeeping Gene during Intraerythrocytic Development of P. falciparum

Gene expression during the intraerythrocytic development cycle of the human malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum is subject to tight temporal control, resulting in a cascade of gene expression to meet the physiological demands of growth, replication, and reinvasion. The roles of the different molecular mechanisms that drive this temporal program of gene expression are poorly understood. Here we report the use of the bxb1 integrase system to reconstitute all aspects of the absolute and temporal control of the prototypical housekeeping gene encoding the proliferating cell nuclear antigen (Pfpcna) around an integrated luciferase reporter cassette. A quantitative analysis of the effect of the serial deletion of 5′ and 3′ genetic elements and sublethal doses of histone deacetylase inhibitors demonstrates that while the absolute control of gene expression could be perturbed, no effect on the temporal control of gene expression was observed. These data provide support for a novel model for the temporal control of potentially hundreds of genes during the intraerythrocytic development of this important human pathogen.

Immunoproteomics Profiling of Blood Stage Plasmodium vivax Infection by High-Throughput Screening Assays

Completed genome sequences and stage-specific transcriptomes of the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle of Plasmodium vivax offers the opportunity to profile immune responses against P. vivax infection using innovative screening approaches. To detect the immune responses to blood stage-specific proteins, we applied a protein array technology to screen the sera of vivax malaria patients. Herein, a set of genes from the P. vivax blood stage was cloned using the In-Fusion cloning method and expressed by a wheat germ cell-free system. A total of 94 open reading frames (ORFs) were cloned and 89 (95%, 89/94) proteins were expressed, which were screened with sera from P. vivax-infected patients and healthy individuals using protein arrays. A total of 18 (19.1%, 18/94) highly immunoreactive proteins were identified, including 7 well-characterized vivax vaccine candidates. The remaining 11 ORFs have not been previously described as immunologically reactive. These novel immunoproteomes of the vivax malaria blood stage will be further studied as potential vaccine candidates. In this first report, high-throughput screening assays have been applied to investigate blood stage-specific immunoproteomes from vivax malaria. These methods may be used to determine immunodominant candidate antigens from the P. vivax genome.

Predicting malaria interactome classifications from time-course transcriptomic data along the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle

Even though a vaccine for malaria infections has been under intense study for many years, it has resisted several different lines of attack attempted by biologists. More than half of Plasmodium proteins still remain uncharacterized and therefore cannot be used in clinical trials. The task is further complicated by the metamorphic life-cycle of the parasite, which allows for rapid evolutionary changes and diversity among related strains, thus making precise targeting of the appropriate proteins for vaccination a technical challenge. We propose an automated method for predicting functions for the malaria parasite, which capitalizes on the importance of the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle data and expression changes during its five phases, as determined computationally by our segmentation algorithm. Our method combines temporal gene expression profiles with protein-protein interaction data, sequence similarity scores, and metabolic pathway information to produce a set of predicted protein functions that can be used as targets for vaccine development. We use a Bayesian approach, which assigns a probability of having (or not having) a particular function to each protein, given the various sources of evidence. In our method, each data source is represented by either a functional linkage graph or a categorical feature vector. The methods are tested on Plasmodium falciparum, the species responsible for the deadliest malaria infections. The algorithm was able to assign meaningful functions to 628 out of 1439 previously unannotated proteins, which are first-choice candidates for experimental vaccine research. We conclude that analyzing time-course gene expression profiles in separate phases leads to much higher prediction accuracy when compared with Pearson correlation coefficients computed across the time course as a whole. Additionally, we demonstrate that temporal expression profiles alone are able to improve the predictive power of the integrated data.

Proteomic Profiling of Plasmodium falciparum through Improved, Semiquantitative Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis

Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) is one of the most commonly used technologies to obtain a snapshot of the proteome at any specific time. However, its application to study the Plasmodial (malaria parasite) proteome is still limited due to inefficient extraction and detection methods and the extraordinarily large size of some proteins. Here, we report an optimized protein extraction method, the most appropriate methods for Plasmodial protein quantification and 2-DE detection, and finally protein identification by mass spectrometry (MS). Linear detection of Plasmodial proteins in a optimized lysis buffer was only possible with the 2-D Quant kit, and of the four stains investigated, Flamingo Pink was superior regarding sensitivity, linearity, and excellent MS-compatibility. 2-DE analyses of the Plasmodial proteome using this methodology resulted in the reliable detection of 349 spots and a 95% success rate in MS/MS identification. Subsequent application to the analyses of the Plasmodial ring and trophozoite proteomes ultimately resulted in the identification of 125 protein spots, which constituted 57 and 49 proteins from the Plasmodial ring and trophozoite stages, respectively. This study additionally highlights the presence of various isoforms within the Plasmodial proteome, which is of significant biological importance within the Plasmodial parasite during development in the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle.

New insights into the blood‐stage transcriptome of Plasmodium falciparum using RNA‐Seq

Recent advances in high-throughput sequencing present a new opportunity to deeply probe an organism's transcriptome. In this study, we used Illumina-based massively parallel sequencing to gain new insight into the transcriptome (RNA-Seq) of the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Using data collected at seven time points during the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle, we (i) detect novel gene transcripts; (ii) correct hundreds of gene models; (iii) propose alternative splicing events; and (iv) predict 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions. Approximately 70% of the unique sequencing reads map to previously annotated protein-coding genes. The RNA-Seq results greatly improve existing annotation of the P. falciparum genome with over 10% of gene models modified. Our data confirm 75% of predicted splice sites and identify 202 new splice sites, including 84 previously uncharacterized alternative splicing events. We also discovered 107 novel transcripts and expression of 38 pseudogenes, with many demonstrating differential expression across the developmental time series. Our RNA-Seq results correlate well with DNA microarray analysis performed in parallel on the same samples, and provide improved resolution over the microarray-based method. These data reveal new features of the P. falciparum transcriptional landscape and significantly advance our understanding of the parasite's red blood cell-stage transcriptome.

Histone Deacetylases Play a Major Role in the Transcriptional Regulation of the Plasmodium falciparum Life Cycle

The apparent paucity of molecular factors of transcriptional control in the genomes of Plasmodium parasites raises many questions about the mechanisms of life cycle regulation in these malaria parasites. Epigenetic regulation has been suggested to play a major role in the stage specific gene expression during the Plasmodium life cycle. To address some of these questions, we analyzed global transcriptional responses of Plasmodium falciparum to a potent inhibitor of histone deacetylase activities (HDAC). The inhibitor apicidin induced profound transcriptional changes in multiple stages of the P. falciparum intraerythrocytic developmental cycle (IDC) that were characterized by rapid activation and repression of a large percentage of the genome. A major component of this response was induction of genes that are otherwise suppressed during that particular stage of the IDC or specific for the exo-erythrocytic stages. In the schizont stage, apicidin induced hyperacetylation of histone lysine residues H3K9, H4K8 and the tetra-acetyl H4 (H4Ac4) and demethylation of H3K4me3. Interestingly, we observed overlapping patterns of chromosomal distributions between H4K8Ac and H3K4me3 and between H3K9Ac and H4Ac4. There was a significant but partial association between the apicidin-induced gene expression and histone modifications, which included a number of stage specific transcription factors. Taken together, inhibition of HDAC activities leads to dramatic de-regulation of the IDC transcriptional cascade, which is a result of both disruption of histone modifications and up-regulation of stage specific transcription factors. These findings suggest an important role of histone modification and chromatin remodeling in transcriptional regulation of the Plasmodium life cycle. This also emphasizes the potential of P. falciparum HDACs as drug targets for malaria chemotherapy.

Transcriptional profiling of growth perturbations of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum

Functions have yet to be defined for the majority of genes of Plasmodium falciparum, the agent responsible for the most serious form of human malaria. Here we report changes in P. falciparum gene expression induced by 20 compounds that inhibit growth of the schizont stage of the intraerythrocytic development cycle. In contrast with previous studies, which reported only minimal changes in response to chemically induced perturbations of P. falciparum growth, we find that approximately 59% of its coding genes display over three-fold changes in expression in response to at least one of the chemicals we tested. We use this compendium for guilt-by-association prediction of protein function using an interaction network constructed from gene co-expression, sequence homology, domain-domain and yeast two-hybrid data. The subcellular localizations of 31 of 42 proteins linked with merozoite invasion is consistent with their role in this process, a key target for malaria control. Our network may facilitate identification of novel antimalarial drugs and vaccines.

Genome-wide nucleosome mapping of Plasmodium falciparum reveals histone-rich coding and histone-poor intergenic regions and chromatin remodeling of core and subtelomeric genes

BackgroundEpigenetic modifications of histones and regulation of chromatin structure have been implicated in regulation of virulence gene families in P. falciparum. To better understand chromatin-mediated gene regulation, we used a high-density oligonucleotide microarray to map the position and enrichment of nucleosomes across the entire genome of P. falciparum at three time points of the intra-erythrocytic developmental cycle (IDC) in vitro. We used an unmodified histone H4 antibody for chromatin immunoprecipitation of nucleosome-bound DNA.ResultsWe observed generally low nucleosomal occupancy of intergenic regions and higher occupancy of protein coding regions. In contract to the overall small fluctuation of nucleosomal occupancy in most coding regions throughout the IDC, subtelomeric genes encoding surface proteins such as var and rif, as well as some core chromosomal genes such as transcription factors, showed large changes in chromatin structure. Telomeres harbored a region with the highest nucleosomal occupancy of the genome and also exhibited large changes with higher nucleosomal occupancy at schizont stages. While many of these subtelomeric genes were previously shown to be modified by H3K9 trimethylation, we also identified some housekeeping genes in core chromosome regions that showed extensive changes in chromatin structure but do not contain this modification. tRNA and basal transcription factor genes showed low nucleosomal occupancy at all times, suggesting of an open chromatin structure that might be permissive for constitutively high levels of expression. Generally, nucleosomal occupancy was not correlated with the steady-state mRNA levels. Several var genes were exceptions: the var gene with the highest expression level showed the lowest nucleosomal occupancy, and selection of parasites for var2CSA expression resulted in lower nucleosomal occupancy at the var2CSA locus. We identified nucleosome-free regions in intergenic regions that may serve as transcription start sites or transcription factor binding sites. Using the nucleosomal occupancy data as the baseline, we further mapped the genome-wide enrichment of H3K9 acetylation and detected general enrichment of this mark in intergenic regions.ConclusionsThese data on nucleosome enrichment changes add to our understanding of the influence of chromatin structure on the regulation of gene expression. Histones are generally enriched in coding regions, and relatively poor in intergenic regions. Histone enrichment patterns allow for identification of new putative gene-coding regions. Most genes do not show correlation between chromatin structure and steady-state mRNA levels, indicating the dominant roles of other regulatory mechanisms. We present a genome-wide nucleosomal occupancy map, which can be used as a reference for future experiments of histone modification mapping.

Host-Parasite Interactions Revealed by Plasmodium falciparum Metabolomics

Intracellular pathogens have devised mechanisms to exploit their host cells to ensure their survival and replication. The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum relies on an exchange of metabolites with the host for proliferation. Here we describe a mass spectrometry-based metabolomic analysis of the parasite throughout its 48 hr intraerythrocytic developmental cycle. Our results reveal a general modulation of metabolite levels by the parasite, with numerous metabolites varying in phase with the developmental cycle. Others differed from uninfected cells irrespective of the developmental stage. Among these was extracellular arginine, which was specifically converted to ornithine by the parasite. To identify the biochemical basis for this effect, we disrupted the plasmodium arginase gene in the rodent malaria model P. berghei. These parasites were viable but did not convert arginine to ornithine. Our results suggest that systemic arginine depletion by the parasite may be a factor in human malarial hypoargininemia associated with cerebral malaria pathogenesis.

Patterns of Gene-Specific and Total Transcriptional Activity during thePlasmodium falciparumIntraerythrocytic Developmental Cycle

The relationships among gene regulatory mechanisms in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum throughout its asexual intraerythrocytic developmental cycle (IDC) remain poorly understood. To investigate the level and nature of transcriptional activity and its role in controlling gene expression during the IDC, we performed nuclear run-on on whole-transcriptome samples from time points throughout the IDC and found a peak in RNA polymerase II-dependent transcriptional activity related to both the number of nuclei per parasite and variable transcriptional activity per nucleus over time. These differential total transcriptional activity levels allowed the calculation of the absolute transcriptional activities of individual genes from gene-specific nuclear run-on hybridization data. For half of the genes analyzed, sense-strand transcriptional activity peaked at the same time point as total activity. The antisense strands of several genes were substantially transcribed. Comparison of the transcriptional activity of the sense strand of each gene to its steady-state RNA abundance across the time points assayed revealed both correlations and discrepancies, implying transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation, respectively. Our results demonstrate that such comparisons can effectively indicate gene regulatory mechanisms in P. falciparum and suggest that genes with diverse transcriptional activity levels and patterns combine to produce total transcriptional activity levels tied to parasite development during the IDC.

Identification of putative regulatory motifs in the upstream regions of co-expressed functional groups of genes in Plasmodium falciparum

BackgroundRegulation of gene expression in Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) remains poorly understood. While over half the genes are estimated to be regulated at the transcriptional level, few regulatory motifs and transcription regulators have been found.ResultsThe study seeks to identify putative regulatory motifs in the upstream regions of 13 functional groups of genes expressed in the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle of Pf. Three motif-discovery programs were used for the purpose, and motifs were searched for only on the gene coding strand. Four motifs – the 'G-rich', the 'C-rich', the 'TGTG' and the 'CACA' motifs – were identified, and zero to all four of these occur in the 13 sets of upstream regions. The 'CACA motif' was absent in functional groups expressed during the ring to early trophozoite transition. For functional groups expressed in each transition, the motifs tended to be similar. Upstream motifs in some functional groups showed 'positional conservation' by occurring at similar positions relative to the translational start site (TLS); this increases their significance as regulatory motifs. In the ribonucleotide synthesis, mitochondrial, proteasome and organellar translation machinery genes, G-rich, C-rich, CACA and TGTG motifs, respectively, occur with striking positional conservation. In the organellar translation machinery group, G-rich motifs occur close to the TLS. The same motifs were sometimes identified for multiple functional groups; differences in location and abundance of the motifs appear to ensure different modes of action.ConclusionThe identification of positionally conserved over-represented upstream motifs throws light on putative regulatory elements for transcription in Pf.

A computational model of gene expression reveals early transcriptional events at the subtelomeric regions of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum

A mathematical model of the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle identifies a delay between subtelomeric and central chromosomal gene activities in the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum.

Quantitative protein expression profiling reveals extensive post-transcriptional regulation and post-translational modifications in schizont-stage malaria parasites

A quantitative time-course analysis of protein abundance for Plasmodium falciparum schizonts using two-dimensional differential gel electrophoresis reveals significant post-transcriptional regulation.