Injection Of Chickens Research Articles

Safety evaluation study of lincomycin and spectinomycin hydrochloride intramuscular injection in chickens

This study aimed to investigate the nonclinical safety of lincomycin and spectinomycin hydrochloride (LC-SPH) intramuscular (i.m) doses on target animals (chickens) to provide guidelines for dose level design and side effect monitoring in clinical trials.A total of 80 healthy Arbor Acres plus broiler chicks were completely randomized and blindly divided into four treatment groups (control, one-time dose, three-time dose, and five-time dose) of 20 chicks each (20 chickens per group). At the age of day 15, all chickens (except the control group) were administered LC-SPH intramuscularly (chest muscles) at different doses of 20 mg/kg.bw, 60 mg/kg.bw, and 100 mg/kg.bw respectively for 9 consecutive days recommended by veterinary international cooperation on harmonization (VICH) guidelines. The chickens had ad libitum access to antibiotic-free feed and water. Feeding chickens were observed twice a day throughout the study. The drug safety was evaluated by complete blood count, biochemical parameters, histopathological, clinical signs, body weight gain, and feed conversion ratio (FCR).Hence, considering the minor toxicity of 60 mg/kg, our results reveal that intramuscular injection of at least 20 mg/kg body weight has no effects on growth performance, clinical blood parameters, organ coefficient, and histopathological parameters. Thus, a combination of LC-SPH 20 mg/kg body weight i.m injection investigated safe followed daily administration for nine consecutive days in healthy chickens.It is concluded that the experimental results support the safety of 20 mg/kg body weight in combination for the further clinical research study.

Methodologies to Assess the Bioactivity of an Herbal Extract on Immunity, Health, Welfare and Production Performance in the Chicken: The Case of Melissa officinalis L. Extract.

The potential of herbal extracts containing bioactive compounds to strengthen immunity could contribute to reducing antimicrobial use in poultry. This study aimed at developing a reliable and robust methodological pipeline to assess the ability of herbal extracts to strengthen chicken innate defenses, especially concerning inflammation and oxidative stress. This methodology was applied to Melissa officinalis L. (MEL) extract, recognized for its biological activities including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Different methods were used to (1). guarantee the quality of MEL extract and its capacity to stimulate the innate immune system; (2). evaluate the relevance of an ex vivo model to mimic inflammatory and oxidative stress challenges to replace LPS injection in chickens; (3). analyse the effects of feed supplemented with MEL extract on inflammation and oxidative stress induced ex vivo; (4). assess the effects of MEL extract on the redox balance, health, welfare and performance in broilers exposed to suboptimal starting conditions through a large-scale approach. The quality of MEL extract preparations, through phytochemical quantification of rosmarinic acid (RA), revealed varying concentrations of RA in the different MEL extracts. RA concentrations remained stable for at least 9 months and in feed three months after incorporating MEL extract. When incubated with chicken cell lines MEL extract showed potential metabolic activation and ability to stimulate immune functions but induced cytotoxicity at high concentrations. The original ex vivo model of inflammation developed on chicken blood cells enabled inflammation and oxidative stress biomarkers to be expressed and revealed antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties of blood cells from chickens fed MEL extract. The experimental model of chicken suboptimal starting conditions validated beneficial effects of MEL extract on the redox balance and also evidenced improved performance during the growth phase, a tendency for fewer muscle defects but a higher severity of pododermatitis lesions without affecting other welfare indicators. This study grouped methods and tools that could be combined according to the plant extract, the needs of professionals working in poultry production systems and staff responsible for animal health, welfare and feeding.

Hypothalamic differences in expression of genes involved in monoamine synthesis and signaling pathways after insulin injection in chickens from lines selected for high and low body weight.

Long-term selection for juvenile body weight from a common founder population resulted in two divergent chicken lines (low-weight selected line (LWS), high-weight selected line (HWS)) that display distinct food intake and blood glucose responses to exogenous neuropeptides and insulin. The objective of this study was to elucidate putative targets affecting food intake and energy homeostasis by sequencing hypothalamic RNA from LWS and HWS chickens after insulin injection. Ninety-day-old female LWS and HWS chickens were injected with either vehicle or insulin and hypothalamus collected at 1h postinjection. Through RNA sequencing, a total of 361 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified. There was greater expression of genes, mainly tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), L-aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (DDC), and vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT), involved in serotonin and dopamine biosynthesis and signaling in LWS than in HWS vehicle-injected chickens. In contrast, after insulin injection, these genes were more highly expressed in HWS than in LWS. We identified 90 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) existing only in the HWS and 121 SNPs specific to LWS and 5119 SNPs close to fixation (with absolute frequency difference ≥0.9). Four were located in genes encoding enzymes associated with serotonergic and dopaminergic pathways, such as DDC, TH, and solute carrier family 18, member 2 (VMAT). These data implicate differences in biogenic amines such as serotonin and dopamine in hypothalamic physiology between the chicken lines, and these differences might be associated with polymorphisms during long-term selection. Changes in serotonergic and dopaminergic signaling pathways in response to insulin injection suggest a role in whole-body energy homeostasis.

Quantity of glucose transporter and appetite-associated factor mRNA in various tissues after insulin injection in chickens selected for low or high body weight

Chickens from lines selected for low (LWS) or high (HWS) body weight differ by 10-fold in body weight at 56 days old with differences in food intake, glucose regulation, and body composition. To evaluate if there are differences in appetite-regulatory factor and glucose transporter (GLUT) mRNA that are accentuated by hypoglycemia, blood glucose was measured, and hypothalamus, liver, pectoralis major, and abdominal fat collected at 90 days of age from female HWS and LWS chickens, and reciprocal crosses, HL and LH, at 60 min after intraperitoneal injection of insulin. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) and receptor (NPYR) subtypes 1 and 5 mRNA were greater in LWS compared with HWS hypothalamus (P < 0.05), but greater in HWS than LWS in fat (P < 0.05). Expression of NPYR2 was greater in LWS than HWS in pectoralis major (P < 0.05). There was greater expression in HWS than LWS for GLUT1 in hypothalamus and liver (P < 0.05), GLUT2 in fat and liver (P < 0.05), and GLUT9 in liver (P < 0.05). Insulin was associated with reduced blood glucose in all populations (P < 0.05) and reduced mRNA of insulin receptor (IR) and GLUT 2 and 3 in liver (P < 0.05). There was heterosis for mRNA, most notably NPYR1 (-78%) and NPYR5 (-81%) in fat and GLUT2 (-70%) in liver. Results suggest that NPY and GLUTs are associated with differences in energy homeostasis in LWS and HWS. Reduced GLUT and IR mRNA after insulin injection suggest a compensatory mechanism to prevent further hypoglycemia.

Distribution and Expression of Recombinant Plasmid Encoding Chicken Interleukin-2

A plasmid DNA that encodes chicken interleukin-2 (pCI-ChIL-2-EGFP) was investigated for its distribution and expression after intramuscular (i.m.) injection in chickens. After the i.m. injection, serum distribution was detectable from 2 h post inoculation (p.i.), peaked at 8 h p.i., and disappeared at 7 days p.i. The plasmid DNA was also observed in several organs including heart, liver, lung, spleen, bursa and inoculated muscle at different time points, but at 19 days p.i. the plasmid DNA was not found in any organ except inoculated muscle. Fluorescence of enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) was found in cytoplasm and nucleus of cultured Vero cells, chicken embryo fibroblasts and peripheral blood lymphocytes, which were transfected in vitro with the plasmid DNA or in vivo with Lipofectamine. The expression profile of the fusion gene (ChIL-2-EGFP) in vivo was measured by RT-PCR, ELISA and fluorescence microscopy. The EGFP expression was detected from 8 h p.i. to 14 days p.i. and peaked at 5 days p.i., when the number of EGFP-expression myocytes was about 5% in the injected site. These results demonstrate that intramuscular administration of plasmid DNA leads to widespread distribution and long-term expression in vivo.

Sodium salicylate attenuates lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced adipsia, but not hypophagia, in broiler chickens

1. A study was conducted to determine the influence of sodium salicylate on the behaviour and the food and water consumption of broiler chickens after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection. 2. An oral dose of 100 mg/kg sodium salicylate was given and an acute phase reaction in broiler chickens was provoked through the intravenous injection of Escherichia coli LPS. 3. Water intake was higher in the LPS and salicylate-treated group than in the positive control group. The salicylate treatment, however, did not restore the food intake, or influence the behaviour of the chickens. 4. These data show that sodium salicylate has a positive effect on the water intake after intravenous injection of LPS in chickens and suggests that there is a difference in mechanism of action of food and water consumption after LPS injection in chickens.

In vivo Role of Tumor Necrosis-Like Factor in Eimeria tenella Infection

The effect of tumor necrosis-like factor (TNLF) on the pathogenesis of coccidiosis was investigated. Injection of crude chicken TNLF enhanced the weight loss caused by Eimeria tenella infection. Rabbit polyclonal antibody against recombinant human tumor necrosis factor-alpha (rhTNF) partially restored E. tenella-induced weight loss in SC chickens, but not in TK chickens. However, injection of chickens with chicken TNLF, rhTNF, and rabbit serum against rhTNF had no significant effect on cecal lesions. Both SC and TK chickens produced circulating TNLF following primary, but not secondary infection, and SC chickens showed higher level of TNLF production than TK chickens. Peripheral blood leukocyte-derived macrophages from SC and TK chickens produced a significant amount of TNLF compared to the preinfection condition when cocultured with sporozoites. In general, macrophages from SC chickens produced higher levels of TNLF than those from TK chickens. No significant difference was observed between primary and secondary infection. These results suggest that the excessive TNF production may be involved in weight loss caused by E. tenella infection in SC chickens.

Effects of Luteinizing Hormone and Follicle-Stimulating Hormone on the Progesterone Receptor Induction in Chicken Granulosa Cells In Vivo

Progesterone receptor (PR) is increased in the granulosa cells prior to ovulation. In order to investigate the factors that induce PR in granulosa cells, we examined whether the PR is induced in granulosa cells by the injection of chickens with ovine luteinizing hormone (oLH) or porcine follicle-stimulating hormone (pFSH) by Western blot analysis. In the oLH-stimulated birds, PR of 79 kDa and 110 kDa were recognized in the granulosa cells of the largest follicle, whereas a PR of 110 kDa was observed in those of the smaller follicles (the second and third largest follicles). No immunoreaction product was observed in the granulosa cells of both the largest and the smaller follicles in pFSH-stimulated birds. In the control birds that were injected with saline, no immunoprecipitate was recognized in the granulosa cells of the largest or smaller follicles. These results suggest that LH may be involved in the induction of PR in the granulosa cells prior to ovulation.

Hemopexin is a developmentally regulated, acute-phase plasma protein in the chicken.

Identity has been established between chicken hemopexin and alpha 1-globulin "M," a plasma known for the hormone responsiveness of its synthesis in monolayer cultures of embryonic chicken hepatocytes (Grieninger, G., Plant, P. W., Liang, T. J., Kalb, R. G., Amrani, D., Mosesson, M. W., Hertzberg, K. M., and Pindyk, J. (1983) Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 408, 469-489). Identification was based on immunological cross-reactivity, electrophoretic behavior on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels, heme-binding capacity, and pattern of cleavage by proteolytic enzymes. Electroimmunoassays were used to investigate plasma protein levels, particularly those of hemopexin, in the acute-phase response and embryonic development. Acute-phase plasma protein production, elicited by injection of chickens with turpentine, bore many similarities to the pattern of hepatocellular plasma protein synthesis produced in response to the addition of specific hormones in culture. The response of the stressed chickens included elevated levels of hemopexin and fibrinogen (5- and 2-fold, respectively) accompanied by a 50% drop in albumin. Hemopexin levels of developing chick embryos were measured for several days before and after hatching. Onset of hemopexin production occurred around the time of hatching, and was followed by a steep increase (more than 1000-fold over 4 days). Similarly, it was not until the 12th h of culture that hepatocytes isolated from both early and late stage chicken embryos began to produce hemopexin, although, from their initiation in culture, they secreted a number of other plasma proteins in quantity. After 12 h, hepatocellular output of hemopexin rapidly accelerated. This precocious induction ex vivo required no hormonal or macromolecular medium supplements. These observations indicate that the embryonic chicken hepatocyte culture system will provide a useful model for studying the regulation of hemopexin biosynthesis in hepatic development and the acute-phase response.

Production of auto-anti-idiotype antibody during the normal immune response: X. Response to TNP-Ficoll in the chicken

The spontaneous production of auto-anti-idiotype (Id) was demonstrated after injection of chickens with trinitrophenylated Ficoll (TNP-F) by: (a) the presence of hapten-augmentable plaque-forming cells (PFC), (b) the ability of serum and of hapten eluates from immune spleen cells to cause hapten-reversible inhibition of anti-TNP plaque formation, and (c) an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Tests for anti-Id using the ELISA and hapten-reversible inhibition of PFC correlated very well. As in the mouse, the incidence of hapten-augmentable PFC was reduced by thymectomy and increased by the transfer of TNP-F-immune spleen cells. Hapten-augmentable PFC were also observed during the immune response of chickens to p-azobenzene arsonate-conjugated Brucella abortus.

Specificity in the immunosuppression induced by avian reticuloendotheliosis virus.

Several parameters of the cellular and humoral immune responses of chickens infected with reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV-T), an avian defective acute leukemia virus, or with its helper virus, reticuloendotheliosis-associated virus (REV-A), were evaluated. Spleen cells from chickens infected with REV-T (REV-A) or REV-A exhibited depressed mixed lymphocyte and mitogen responses in vitro. Allograft rejection was delayed by 6 to 14 days in birds infected with REV-A. The specific antitumor cell immune response was also studied by a 51Cr-release cytotoxicity assay. Lymphocytes from chickens infected with low numbers of the REV-T-transformed cells exhibited significant levels of cytolytic reactivity against the 51Cr-labeled REV-T tumor cells in vitro. The mitogen response of lymphocytes from these injected birds was similar to that of uninjected chickens. In contrast, lymphocytes from chickens injected with higher numbers of REV-T-transformed cells exhibited suppressed mitogen reactivity and failed to develop detectable levels of cytotoxic activity directed against the REV-T tumor cells. These results suggest that the general depression of cellular immune competence which occurs during REV-T (REV-A) infection could contribute to the development of this acute leukemia by inhibiting the proliferation of cytotoxic cells directed against the tumor cell antigens. The cytotoxic effect observed after the injection of chickens with non-immunosuppressive levels of REV-T-transformed cells appears to be specific for the REV-T tumor cell antigens since cells transformed by Marek's disease virus or avian erythroblastosis virus were not lysed. In marked contrast, birds whose cellular immune responses were suppressed by infection with REV-A were capable of producing a humoral immune response to viral antigens. Detectable levels of viral antibody, however, did not appear until 12 to 15 days after REV-A infection. Since REV-T (REV-A) induced an acute leukemia resulting in death within 7 to 14 days, it appears unlikely that the ability of chickens to make antiviral antibody influences the development of lethal reticuloendotheliosis.

Response of caeruloplasmin to Escherichia coli endotoxins and adrenal hormones in the domestic fowl

The injection of chickens with Escherichia coli endotoxins immediately produced a 50 per cent rise in plasma caeruloplasmin activity which was attributed to the release of the protein from liver cell. This was followed by a fall in activity, which was probably due to a fall in activity, which was probably due to a stabilising effect of adrenocortical hormones on the cell membranes, and then by a five-fold increase. The results of experiments with cycloheximide, adrenocorticotrophin, beta-methasone and reserpine indicated that the third phase of the response reflected increased synthesis in the liver which was partly induced by adrenal hormones. It increased with the dose and was not elicited by the particulate nature of the toxin preparation or by its lipid and polysaccharide components.

Carcinogenesis of N‐nitrosodiethylamine (DENA) in chickens and domestic cats

The environmental carcinogen N-nitrosodiethylamine (diethylnitrosamine, DENA) has been found to be carcinogenic in 18 animal species. In this study we demonstrate that, after intramuscular injection in chickens, it induces hepatocellular carcinomas of the liver and adenocarcinomas of the kidney. Oral administration in domestic cats causes malignant hepatomas and tumors of the esophagus and kidney. Since DENA is carcinogenic in all species in which it has been tested adequately it can be expected to be a human carcinogen, too.

The effect of Escherichia coli endotoxin on lysosomal enzymes in the domestic fowl

During the 2 h following the injection of chickens (aged nine to 11 weeks) with endotoxin isolated from a pathogenic strain of Escherichia coli (O78) there was a transient rise in the activity of acid phosphatase, aryl sulphatase and beta-glucuronidase in the plasma, suggesting increased release of these enzymes from lysosomes. This was followed by a fall in their activity which may have been due largely to stabilisation of the lysosomal membrane brought about by increased secretion of adrenocortical hormones and/or accelerated removal of the enzymes from circulation by the reticuloendothelial system.

Elevated 7S immunoglobulin and acute phase proteins in adjuvant-injected chickens.

Injection of chickens with FCA or FIA supplemented with either Bordetella pertussis or Nocardia rubra induced greatly increased serum levels of 7S Ig and proteins with alpha-, beta-, and gamma-mobility in electrophoresis. The serum protein changes were correlated with the development of DHS and the formation of a large allergic granuloma. The 7S Ig was considered "nonspecific" since it was not adsorbed with the bacterial cells. The alpha-, beta-, and gamma-mobility proteins were identified as acute phase proteins as they also were induced by injection of chickens with turpentine-oil; however, increased serum levels of 7S Ig were not similarly increased.

Antigenic relationship between the surface antigens of avian and equine influenze viruses.

Influenza virus Equine 1 (A/equine/Prague/56) has a hemagglutinin which is antigenically related to the hemagglutinin of fowl plague virus strain Rostock (FPV) and a neuraminidase which cross-reacts with the enzyme of virus N (A/chick/Germany/49). After a single injection of chickens with Equine 1 virus no hemagglutination inhibiting (HI) and neutralizing antibodies against FPV can be demonstrated, although the birds are fully protected against a lethal dose of FPV. HI and neutralizing antibodies against FPV appear after a second injection of Equine 1 virus several weeks after the first one. Liberation of newly sunthesized FPV from the host cell is ingibited by antibodies cross-reacting with any antigen of virus surface.

Effect of Infectious Agents on Chickens Selected for Plasma Corticosterone Response to Social Stress

SOCIAL stress has been found to modify the response of chickens to infectious diseases. Chickens maintained in a more stressful social environment were more susceptible to viral infections and more resistant to bacterial infections than chickens maintained in a less stressful social environment (Gross and Colmano, 1969). High levels of plasma corticosterone were positively correlated with resistance to Escherichia coli infection (Gross and Colmano, 1967). Injection of chickens with corticosterone resulted in increased resistance to E. coli infection (Gross and Colmano, 1970). Chemicals which block the production of corticosterone by the adrenals resulted in increased resistance to viral infections and decreased resistance to E. coli infection (Colmano and Gross, 1971). Brown and Nestor (1970) reported that turkeys could be selected for plasma corticosterone response to cold stress. They found that the major selective modification was on the ability of the adrenals to respond to ACTH.The purpose of these experiments…

Antigenic characteristics of the interaction between Rous sarcoma virus and mammalian cells. Complement-fixing and transplantation antigens.

Abstract Antigenic characteristics of mouse fibrosarcomas induced by three strains of Rous sarcoma virus (Schmidt-Ruppin-, Prague- and Bryan standard-RSV) were studied by complement-fixation (CF) and transplantation tests. Approximately 50% of the induced tumors contained CF antigen specific for the avian sarcoma-leukosis group of viruses when examined with high-titer rabbit antiserum against sodium lauryl sulfate-treated avian myeloblastosis virus. Common specific transplantation antigen was found in all but one tumor. No correlation was observed between the presence of transplantation and CF antigen. Four tumors were positive in both CF and transplantation tests. Three tumors were positive in transplantation but negative in CF tests. One tumor was positive in CF tests, but negative in transplantation tests. Injection of CF positive mouse tumors in chickens caused chicken Rous sarcomas. No Rous sarcomas appeared in chickens injected with CF negative tumors. The only exception to this rule was a tumor induced by Bryan standard strain of RSV. This tumor contained CF antigen but gave negative results after injection in chickens. The possible significance of antigenic markers for studies of different types of virus-cell interaction is discussed.

Formation of Antibody to Haptens

Summary Intensive immunization of chickens and rabbits with unconjugated PABA produced no antibody response as measured by the passive hemagglutination reaction. Antibody to PABA was produced in response to a series of injections of BGG-p-azobenzoate in rabbits, and to a single injection in chickens. Anti-PABA and anti-BGG primary and secondary antibody responses were partially characterized. In chickens a single injection of BGG-p-azobenzoate induced anti-PABA antibody within 72 hr. The peak for both anti-PABA and anti-BGG occurred after 5 to 7 days. Following peak titers, anti-BGG titers decreased rapidly, but anti-PABA titers persisted for 70 days. The persistence of antihapten antibody was discussed. Following primary immunization with BGG-p-azobenzoate, anamnestic responses were produced in rabbits and chickens with free PABA. Secondary responses to BGG and to homologous protein-hapten were also reported.

Treatment of Experimental PPLO Infections in Young Chickens with Tylosin, a New Antibiotic

INTRODUCTIONSINCE pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO) are implicated as the cause of chronic respiratory disease (CRD) of chickens, specific drug action against these organisms should measurably aid in the control of naturally occurring CRD. The efficacy of tylosin, a new antibiotic, in the control of an experimental PPLO infection in young chickens has been studied using the previously described infection system of Ose et al. (1960).MATERIALS AND METHODSProperties of tylosin—The physical and chemical characteristics of tylosin have been described in detail by Hamill et al. (1960). The antibiotic has a wide margin of safety and is relatively non-irritating on injection in chickens, turkeys and mammals, or on dust inhalation by chickens. Tylosin in aqueous solution in the pH range of 4.0 to 9.0 is stable for at least one month at room temperature. The lactate and tartrate salts of tylosin are soluble in water in amounts greater than …