Indo-European Research Articles

THE OPTATIVE IN THE ALBANIAN LANGUAGE

The verb system of the Albanian language in its present form is quite rich in different tense and modal forms. Some of them are inherited from the oldest stages of the language, others are relatively new internal creations. Although this verb form has been studied by a number of prominent albanologists such as F. Bopp (1854) (Franz Bopp), G. Meyer (1888) (Gustav Meyer), H. Pedersen (1895) (Holger Pedersen), Dh. Kamarda (1864) (Dhimitër Kamarda), Gj. Pekmezi (1908) (Gjergj Pekmez), M. Domi (1961) (Mahir Domi), Sh. Demiraj (1986) (Shaban Demiraj), its origin and development remain unclear and many questions remain open. In this paper, we deal with its historical development, its use, and we will give the opinions of other well-known linguists about this verb form. We will also analyse two books in terms of how much the optative is used in the standard language and how much in the dialect. Based on the analysis of specific examples, we concluded that the optative mood in the Albanian language is more commonly used in old texts, ballads, folktales, and dialects, and it is increasingly less utilised in standard literature, indicating a trend towards reduction, similar to what occurs in other Indo-European languages.

A Domain Knowledge Transformer Model for Occupation Profiling

Occupation profiling is a subtask of authorship profiling that is broadly defined as an analysis of individuals’ writing styles. Although the problem has been widely explored, no previous studies have attempted to identify Chinese classical poetry. Inspired by Trudgill’s seminal work on stylistic variation as a function of occupation, we present a novel Domain-Knowledge Transformer model to predict a poet’s occupation through their poems’ writing styles. Different from other Indo-European languages, Chinese has rarely used characters and two types of writing forms: traditional Chinese and simplified Chinese. To tackle these problems, we use the language-related component to standardize our input. We also use alphabetization to satisfy the restrictions on rhyming rules and tonal styles. As a special literal form, traditional domain knowledge, for example, named entities, themes, ages and the official career path, is valuable for poet occupation profiling. However, due to the lack of appropriate annotation datasets, it is difficult to recognize these features. Therefore, we proposed the domain knowledge component employing the latent Dirichletal location model to capture the extra theme information and establish named entity dictionaries to recognize the named entity of the datasets in this study. Finally, in the deep learning component, we combine Transformer with a convolutional neural network (CNN) model to perform occupation profiling. The experimental results suggest that our model is effective in this task. Moreover, the results demonstrate an account of other social attribution features of poetry style that are predictive of occupation in this domain.

TIRA — BILGOROD — ASPROKASTRО...: ETHNIC HISTORY OF THE REGION, REFLECTED IN VARIANT CITY NAMES

Introduction. The article offers a historical-linguistic analysis of all known historical variants of the modern oikonym Belgorod-Dniestrovskyi of the Odesa region: Tira, Belgorod, Aspron, Akja Kermen, Asprokastro, Chetatya Albe, Moncastro, Mavrokastro, Albi Kastri, Akkerman. The connection of each name with the corresponding period of the ethnic history of this region is traced — ancient Greek, East Slavic (ancient Ukrainian), Turkic (Tatar), modern Greek, Moldavian (East Romansh), Venetian-Genoese, Turkish, Russian. Purpose. The author carried out a structural-semantic and etymological analysis of the creative bases of the historical variants of the modern oikonym Belgorod-Dniestrovskyi of Odesa region: Tira, Belgorod, Aspron, Akdja Kermen, Asprokastro, Chetatya Albe, Moncastro, Maokastro, Mavrokastro, Albi Kastri, Akkerman and also traced the connection of the internal form of the specified names with the corresponding stages of the ethnic history of the studied region. Object of study. Historical variants of the modern oikonym Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi: Tyra (Tyra), Bѣlъgorodъ, Aspron (’Άσπρoν), Akja Kermen, Asprokastro, Chetatya Albe, Moncastro (Monchastro), Maocastro (Maocastro), Mavrocastro (Maurocastri), Albi Castri (Albi Castri), Akkerman (Акъ-Керменъ, Akierman). Research methods. Methods of analysis of historical variants of the oikonym Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi: the descriptive method: the word-forming structure of the given variants is described; the comparative-historical method, by means of which the creative bases of the specified names within the related Indo-European languages are characterized; the comparative method: a systematic comparison of genetically Indo-European names (Greek, Latin, Eastern Romansh, Slavic) with their genetically Turkic (Tatar and Turkish) counterparts; the method of etymological analysis: the etymons of the corresponding oikonymous variants are determined. Research results. The connection between the oldest name of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi — Tira and the corresponding archaic name Dniester has been established. The author assumes its evolution from the Pre-Iranian (Indo-Aryan) form tīvrā, and substantiates (with the involvement of a wide range of related names) the ProtoSlavic archaic of the ancient Ukrainian name Bilhorod ’ Бѣлъгородъ. Therefore, most of the other variants were formed as corresponding semantic loans (Tatar, Modern Greek, Moldavian (Eastern Romansh), Turkish) of the ancient Slavic name Бѣлъгородъ. Conclusions. The historical-linguistic analysis of the historical variant names of the modern oikonym Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi — Tira, Бѣлъгородъ, Aspron, Akja Kermen, Asprokastro, Chetatya Albe, Moncastro, Maokastro, Mavrokastro, Albi Castri, Akkerman — proves the connection between the linguistic history of the analyzed variant names and the corresponding ethnic history of the studied region.

ENGLISH MARINE TERMINOLOGY: STRUCTURAL AND SEMANTIC CHARACTERISTICS

The present article is an attempt to study English marine terminology which turns out to be topical these days and has been determined by several factors. Firstly, shipping and maritime trade are of great importance in the life of the English people. Secondly, increase of the role of science and technology in the development of mankind leads to the constantly growing role of terminology in modern language. Despite the fact that English marine terminology serves as an object of investigation in the works of many Ukrainian linguists, a number of issues remain relevant and require further research. The aim of the given work is to study structural and semantic characteristics of the English marine terminology system. To achieve the set aim, a number of tasks have been performed: the concepts “terminology” and “terminological system” have been distinguished; the existing classifications have been considered and the composition of the main thematic groups of the English marine terminology system has been outlined; the word-forming features of the English marine terminology have been analyzed and the words belonging to the marine theme have been systematized, taking into account the most productive ways of word formation. The object of our study is English marine terminological units, expressions, idioms related to shipbuilding and seafaring. The subject of our study embraces the structural and semantic characteristics of the English marine terminology, which allows to understand its structure and facilitates its study by specialists in the relevant field. Research methods include the following: descriptive method that helps to establish structural and semantic features of marine terminology units; method of component analysis that allows to establish the semantic features of English marine terms; continuous sampling method which is helpful for selection of data researched. According to structural types, terms are divided into: simple; derivatives; complex; phrase-terms (compound); terms-abbreviations; terms-literal conventional designations; terms-symbols (signs); half-sign terms; nomenclature. The formation of marine terms occurs morphologically and syntactically, there are many borrowings from different languages of the Indo-European family.

Old Nordic herðr ‘shoulder’ and Greek κορσίς ‘behind, buttocks, ass’: Is there any etymological relationship between them?

The article discusses a possible relationship between the Proto-Germanic term for ‘shoulder’ (ON. herðr f., Far. herðar f. pl.; Elfd. erde f.; OHG. harti, herti f., MHG. herte f. < PG. *hardīz f.) and the unexplained Greek gloss attested in the lexicon of Hesychius of Alexandria: †κορσίς· πυγή (“korsís: behind, buttocks, ass”). It is suggested that the above-mentioned gloss comes from the Laconian dialect, which already in the Classical era (5th–4th c. BC) spirantized the Greek phoneme θ [th] > [θ] > Lac. σ [s]. The Laconian word κορσίς goes back to the Doric appellative *κορθίς, which presumably derives from the Proto-Indo-European root *ḱerdh- ‘to fart, blow to, break wind’, secondarily ‘to stink, smell’ (cf. Ved. śárdhate ‘s/he breaks wind downwards’; Lat. cerda f. ‘dung’ attested in mūscerdae f. pl. ‘mouse droppings’, ovicerda f. ‘sheep dung’ etc.). The Laconian derivative has reliable semantic equivalents in other Indo-European languages (e.g. Skt. śr̥dhū- f. ‘the anus, rump’, śr̥dhu- m. ‘id.’). The Proto-Germanic term *hardīz (gen. sg. *hardjōz) ‘shoulder’ has no convincing etymology. Its juxtaposition with the Laconian word κορσίς (< Doric Greek *κορθίς < IE. *ḱordh-ī̆-s f.) seems phonologically indisputable. Doubts are raised only by the semantic part of the proposed etymology. The author assumes that ancestors of the Germanic people originally used the term *hardīz (< PIE. *ḱordh-ih2-s f.) to describe an extremely smelly part of the human body, i.e. the armpit located near the shoulder. The suggested change ‘anus, rump’ > ‘a stinking part of the body’ > ‘armpit’ > ‘shoulder’ must have taken place already in the Proto-Germanic epoch.

Hebrew offensive language taxonomy and dataset

Abstract This paper introduces a streamlined taxonomy for categorizing offensive language in Hebrew, addressing a gap in the literature that has, until now, largely focused on Indo-European languages. Our taxonomy divides offensive language into seven levels (six explicit and one implicit level). We based our work on the simplified offensive language (SOL) taxonomy introduced in (Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk et al. 2021a) hoping that our adjustment of SOL to the Hebrew language will be capable of reflecting the unique linguistic and cultural nuances of Hebrew. The study involves both linguistic and cultural analysis beyond Natural Language Processing (NLP). We employed manual linguistic analysis to understand the nuances of offensive language in Hebrew. An accompanying dataset, gathered on Twitter and manually curated by human annotators, is described in detail. This dataset was constructed to both validate the taxonomy and serve as a foundation for future research on offensive language detection and analysis in Hebrew. Preliminary analysis of the dataset reveals intriguing patterns and distributions, underscoring the complexity and specificity of offensive expressions in the Hebrew language. The aim of our work is to capture the complexity and specificity of offensive expressions in Hebrew beyond what automated NLP methods alone can provide. Our findings highlight the significance of considering linguistic and cultural variations when researching and correcting abusive language online. We believe that our streamlined taxonomy and associated dataset will be crucial in improving research in Hebrew language sociocultural studies, natural language processing, and offensive language detection. Our study also makes a substantial contribution to the study of low-resource languages and can be used as a model for future research on other languages.

SÖZDE KARCA GLOSSALAR İSKİT KÖKENLİ Mİ? BİR YENİDEN İNCELEME

Carian is an extinct language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family, which is attested in numerous inscriptions, graffiti, and coins written in the so-called Carian script. The Carian glosses cited by Byzantine writers, mainly by Stephan of Byzantium, are the main secondary source for the Carian language. Despite the hundred-year-long search for etymologies and the almost completed decipherment of the Carian inscriptions, these pseudo-glosses have not been fully explained. The present study links three of the seven most certain of these glosses, namely κόον/κῶν/κοῖον ‘sheep’, γίσσα ‘stone’, and ἄλα ‘horse’, to some Altaic and Xiongnu words and traces their origin back to a non-Indo-European language spoken among the Scythians. The language in question is assumed to be the donor of Proto-Turkic *kōńï̆ ‘sheep’, Proto-Bulgar Turkic *kïsa ‘rock, cliff’, and Early Common Turkic *halan ‘horse’. These forms also entered the Mongolic, Tungusic, and other neighboring languages. The parallelism between the Carian pseudo-glosses and these word forms is the result of the linguistic contact at the two opposite ends of the Scythic culture.

*ABA in Romeyka Verbal Paradigms

In this work, we analyze present-tense and past-tense paradigms in Romeyka, an understudied Indo-European language belonging to the Hellenic sub-branch, spoken mainly in the Trabzon province in Turkey. We argue for decomposing the endings in the plural forms based on the regularities across present and past tense paradigms. While the proposed decomposition is empirically motivated, it leads to a theoretical challenge known in the literature as *ABA pattern, which has been extensively argued to be non-existent in morphology (e.g., Caha, 2009; Bobaljik, 2012; Middleton, 2020). We demonstrate this challenge for Nanosyntax (Starke, 2009), which predicts that syncretism will only be possible for structurally contiguous features. In an attempt to address this puzzle, we develop an account which relies on the idea that languages may differ in whether they single out the Speaker or the Addressee features in building first and second-person structures. Accordingly, the *ABA in Romeyka dissolves into a predicted pattern where the syncretism is the non-offending AAB pattern.

The time and place of origin of South Caucasian languages: insights into past human societies, ecosystems and human population genetics

This study re-examines the linguistic phylogeny of the South Caucasian linguistic family (aka the Kartvelian linguistic family) and attempts to identify its Urheimat. We apply Bayesian phylogenetics to infer a dated phylogeny of the South Caucasian languages. We infer the Urheimat and the reasons for the split of the Kartvelian languages by taking into consideration (1) the past distribution ranges of wildlife elements whose names can be traced back to proto-Kartvelian roots, (2) the distribution ranges of past cultures and (3) the genetic variations of past and extant human populations. Our best-fit Bayesian phylogenetic model is in agreement with the widely accepted topology suggested by previous studies. However, in contrast to these studies, our model suggests earlier mean split dates, according to which the divergence between Svan and Karto-Zan occurred in the early Copper Age, while Georgian and Zan diverged in the early Iron Age. The split of Zan into Megrelian and Laz is widely attributed to the spread of Georgian and/or Georgian speakers in the seventh-eighth centuries CE. Our analyses place the Kartvelian Urheimat in an area that largely intersects the Colchis glacial refugium in the South Caucasus. The divergence of Kartvelian languages is strongly associated with differences in the rate of technological expansions in relation to landscape heterogeneity, as well as the emergence of state-run communities. Neolithic societies could not colonize dense forests, whereas Copper Age societies made limited progress in this regard, but not to the same degree of success achieved by Bronze and Iron Age societies. The paper also discusses the importance of glacial refugia in laying the foundation for linguistic families and where Indo-European languages might have originated.

Question Nouns and Clause-Typing in Yoruba

Interrogative sentences are deployed to perform speech acts of asking questions or making requests. Interestingly, the syntax of interrogatives in Yorùbá has attracted the attention of many researchers in the language (Ìl??rí, 2010: ?lá?rewájú & Táíwò, 2020: ?lá?rewájú 2022). However, the correct feature specification and syntactic behaviour of question nouns (hence, QNs) are yet to be given adequate attention. Some of the extant works in the language equate QNs in Yorùbá with wh-phrases of English and some other Indo-European languages, This paper, within the confines of the Chomsky’s Minimalist Program, discusses the two existing views on how constituent interrogatives involving QNs are clause-typed (the traditional opinion hypothesizing that QNs are the question makers in constituent interrogatives while the other position holds the views that an abstract question morpheme clause-types a sentence as a constituent question). This paper lays some claims to support the traditional position that a clause is typed a constituent question by the transfer of the question force [QF] on a QN to the Inter0 through specifier and head agreement. Primary and secondary data were collected and subjected to syntactic analysis. QNs in the language are ta ‘who’ and kí ‘what’, èló ‘how much’, mélòó ‘how many’ and so on. Polysyllabic QNs are derivational in the language. Yorùbá content word questions, relative clauses, adverbials and so on are not signalled in wh-encripts unlike English. The language operates different functional heads to clause-type them.

Non-subject oriented existential, possessive and dative-experiencer constructions in Modern Hebrew – a cross-linguistic typological approach

Abstract This paper sheds light on the alignment of Existential, Possessive and Dative-Experiencer constructions prevalent in Modern Hebrew that involve ambiguity of syntactic relations. Data-driven and employing a strictly typological approach, the study argues that the constructions in question are fundamentally related, and that they do not conform to the typological criteria of ‘subject-oriented’ languages, like most Indo-European languages. It is suggested that an inner relationship holds between the constructions in question. As a non-subject oriented language that does not require entities of referential prominence to be encoded as subjects or topics, Hebrew tends to configure non-volitional events as happening, or coming from outside – existing with reference to the entity experiencing them or who is involved in them as Benefactive or Possessor.

Empagliflozin treatment prevented oxidative stress, macrophage infiltration, pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic responses in the left ventricle of isoprenaline-induced Takotsubo-like syndrome in rats

Abstract Introduction Takotsubo Syndrome (TTS) is an acute heart failure (HF) syndrome induced by both emotional and physical stressors involving a surge of catecholamines and apical ballooning. Currently, there is no specific treatment for TTS. Sodium-glucose cotransporter2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) showed major cardiovascular protective effects in patients with HF independent of glycemic control. SGLT2i have also been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects, and to improve the endothelial function in experimental models of cardiac disease. However, a possible protective role of SGLT2i in TTS is unclear. Thus, this study evaluated the effect of SGLT2i on isoprenaline-induced TTS-like syndrome in rats, and determined the underlying mechanism. Methods 32 female Sprague-Dawley rats (10 weeks old) were divided into 4 groups: control, empagliflozin (30 mg/kg/day provided in the diet for 2 weeks), isoprenaline (Iso, 100 mg/kg, i.p.) to induce a TTS-like syndrome, and Iso plus empagliflozin (IE group). After 6 h of Iso injection, echocardiography was performed to determine left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction (EF) by area and heart rate (HR). At day 3, rats were sacrificed, main mesenteric artery and microvessels were collected for vascular reactivity studies, and LV was divided into base and apex to study mRNA expression levels using RT-qPCR, macrophage infiltration by in situ CD68 immunofluorescence staining, and oxidative stress using dihydroethidium. Results The injection of Iso to rats caused at 6 h an increased LVEF and HR in the Iso and the IE groups as compared to their corresponding controls. The HR response was significantly smaller in the IE group compared to Iso group whereas LVEF was similar. In addition, in mesenteric microvessels but not the main mesenteric artery, Iso group showed significant decreased relaxations to acetylcholine and increased contractile responses to phenylephrine in intact rings both of which were not observed in the IE group. Hearts showed significantly increased mRNA levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, NOX2, VCAM-1, MMP-9, TGF-β1 and collagen-1, oxidative stress levels and CD68 staining in the apex compared to the base in the ISO group, all of which were significantly reduced in IE group. Conclusions The present findings indicate that ISO injection caused in the LV elevated levels of oxidative stress, macrophage infiltration, pro-inflammatory, pro-remodeling and pro-fibrosis responses that were more pronounced in the apex compared to the base, and also endothelial dysfunction in the systemic microcirculation, all of which were significantly prevented by the empagliflozin treatment. They further suggest that SGLT2 appears as an interesting target in TTS.

Root-adjacent exponence in the Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, and Latin verbal systems

Proto-Indo-European verbal morphology is generally described as consisting of at least a “thematic” and an “athematic” conjugation, which differ in whether or not a fixed vocalic piece adjacent to the root (traditionally known as “thematic vowel”) is present. This paper investigates the behavior of the outcomes of the thematic vowels in three ancient Indo-European languages: Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, and Latin. We show that, on the one hand, Latin thematic vowels are typically “ornamental”, in that they lack any morpho-syntactico-semantic information, and are used exclusively for classification purposes; on the other hand, Sanskrit and Ancient Greek thematic vowels are fully functional, in that they expone (at least) aspectual information. We argue for a diachronic account of such differential treatment of thematicity across the three languages, whereby the original functionality of such pieces, albeit fully preserved in Sanskrit, was gradually lost over time, and finally gave rise to the Latin verbal ornamental system.

Indo-European middle verbs formed with -r- as a phonetic archaism

Indo-European middle verbs formed with -r- as a phonetic archaism

The Development and Validation of the Meaning Approach Scale: Traditional, Functionalistic and Critical-Intuitive Approaches to Meaning in Life

Many Indo-European languages refer to meaning in life with three groups of terms (e.g. vocation/significance/Bezeichnung, meaning/purpose/Meinung, sense/Sinn). These etymologies seem to refer to traditional, functionalistic and critical-intuitive/phenomenological approaches to life. This study aimed to develop and validate a psychometric instrument measuring traditional, functionalistic and critical-intuitive/phenomenological approaches to meaning in life. Eight experts developed consensus definitions and generated items for the Meaning Approach Scale (MAS) in a Delphi-study. A Three-Step-Test-Interview with eight participants, Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Item Response Theory in an informal survey of 108 participants, reduced the initial 56-item MAS-56 to MAS-45, with sub-scales for traditional, functionalistic and critical-intuitive/phenomenological approaches. The MAS-45 was validated in a survey of 1281 participants in 49 countries, with reliability, factor structure and correlations with other questionnaires as hypothesized. Traditional and functionalistic approaches correlated with negative affects, low quality-of-life and life satisfaction, whereas critical-intuitive/phenomenological approaches correlated with positive affects, quality-of-life and life satisfaction. Functionalistic approaches were reported more frequently in Western countries and traditional and critical-intuitive approaches in less Western countries. This study indicates the MAS-45 to be valid and reliable, differentiating three approaches to life. Individuals benefit most from a critical-intuitive/phenomenological approach, which therapists may consider exploring with clients.

Vārdi zagt un zaglis senajos latviešu rakstu avotos

In the article, the words zagt ‘to steal’ and zaglis ‘thief’ and other formatives of the verb zagt, which are the recent entries in the Historical Dictionary of Latvian (LVVV), are discussed, paying attention to how these entries are made and what problems the authors of the LVVV meet. The verb zagt (compare with Lithuanian žàgti), often used in the written sources of 16th–17th centuries, is at the basis of the word zaglis, and, for example, substantives zādzība, zadzējs, zagšana, adjective zadzīgs, adverb zagšu. These derivatives are mostly mentioned in the 17th-century dictionaries. In the early texts, only substantives zaglis and zādzība are often used. LVVV also has an entry of the reflexive verb zagties, as well as apzagties, sazagties, nozagties. The prefixed verbs derived from the verb zagt have the largest diversity; they are mainly used in the dictionary of Ch. Fürecker, for example, aizzagt, apzagt, nozagt, pazagt, pārzagt, sazagt etc. The semantics of these verbs is a difficult task for the authors of the LVVV. The basic word zagt is not characterised by semantic diversity; in the early texts, it is most often used in the concrete meaning ‘to steal’, also common for today’s user of Latvian, similarly to the word zaglis ‘thief’.The word zagt is common already in the texts at the end of the 16th century; it is often used in the religious texts of the 17th century and in the translation of the Bible – most often in the well-known context of the commandmend “Tev nebūs zagt” (You shall not steal). In the Bible, an extraordinary word group zagt sirdi ‘to steal the heart’ is used, supposedly, with a meaning ‘to cheat, to deceive’. The word zaglis in early Latvian texts has several characteristic word groups, for example, kā zaglis naktī ‘as a thief in the night’, zagļi un slepkavas ‘thieves and murderers’, an idiom karsts zaglis ‘hot thief’, also a proverb “Zaglis dabū zagļa algu” (A thief gets thief’s pay) is often used. The derivatives of the verb zagt (zagšu, nozagties) have a meaning connected with a secret action and movement; in modern Latvian, it is characteristic of the reflexive verb zagties ‘to steal, to sneak’. Also, the word groups, for example, kā zaglis ‘as a thief’ or kā zaglis naktī ‘as a thief in the night’, have this shade of meaning ‘secretely, unnoticed, stealthily’. Such semantic parallels of the verbs zagt, zagties (taking another person’s property/secret action, movement) are characteristic of many Indo-European languages.

The Internal Structure of Copular Sentences with desu and da in Japanese

Japanese is a language known for its rich honorific morphology. Different from many Indo-European languages, Japanese language has its honorifics built into the grammar system. Japanese honorifics have many different forms and their usages are not always clearly predictable, which makes it quite challenging for second language learners to grasp. This paper introduces a less-known honorific pattern that clearly shows how Japanese honorifics behave grammatically. The copula verb be in Japanese has two forms: a non-honorific form da and an honorific form desu. Da is used under conditions where the speaker indicates an informal or casual talk, while desu is used when the speaker intends to present good manners to the listener. From a formal linguistic perspective, a sentence with the plain copula form and one with the honorific copula form have a different underlying structure represented in the grammar of native Japanese speakers. The paper explains such difference between copular sentences with desu and da by presenting a syntactic structure analysis. It proposes a different internal structure for a copular sentence with desu and da, and further argues that the sentence with desu has more structure in the left periphery and presents a different verb position in the internal structure in comparison to the sentence with da. The analysis motivates a syntactical way to present and explain the differences in grammatical structures and social contexts of copula use when teaching honorifics in Japanese second language classrooms. It suggests that modern Japanese second language education start teaching honorifics with copular sentences where the distinction between honorific and non-honorific use is very clear and simple.

SINGULUS & PLURES IN UKRAINIAN, TURKISH, GERMAN, CHINESE LANGUAGES: LEXICO-GRAMMATICAL FEATURES CATEGORIES OF NUMBERS

The work is devoted to the category of number in the Ukrainian language in a comparative-linguistic aspect with other Indo-European, Turkic and Sino-Tibetan languages. The purpose of the study is the comparative and analytical aspect of the number category in the Ukrainian, Turkish, German, and Chinese languages. The tasks of the work were to determine the comparative aspect of the number category in the German language compared to the Ukrainian language, to reveal the comparative aspect of the number category in the Turkish language compared to the Ukrainian language, to identify the definition of the comparative aspect of the number category in the Chinese language compared to the Ukrainian language. The object of the research is the number category in the Ukrainian, Turkish, German, and Chinese languages. The subject of the study is examples of singular and plural (singulus and plures) in Ukrainian, Turkish, German, and Chinese languages. The work uses comparative, historical, comparative and structural research methods. Scientific novelty is determined by the fact of the analysis of the category of the number of languages of different linguistic and historical groups. The theoretical and practical value of the obtained results lies in the application of the research material in working with foreign students for better and effective teaching of their Ukrainian language as a foreign language. The conclusions state that the number category is an interesting lexical-grammatical feature of language formation worthy of further research. When teaching students of foreign origin, it is advisable to take into account the complex grammar of their native language. The study of the category of number from the perspective of comparative linguistics provides a wide space for new research. Such studies have not only theoretical, but also practical/professional benefits for teachers of Ukrainian as a foreign language.

TERRITORIAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC TRADITIONS OF THE CHERNIHIV-SIVERSKYI REGION

Abstract. The article presents a generalized analysis of the published national historical and theoretical historiography of the process of establishing the territorial and demographic traditions of the Chernihiv-Siverskyi population as part of Kyivan Rus. The territory of their settlement, demographic composition, evolution of the life and lifestyle of the northerners, which have become common traditions of the Indo-European peoples, are determined. The research methodology is based on the heuristic method of systematization of classical and modern scientific thought, historical, geographical, artistic historiography and archaeological sources, which formed the cultural direction of systematization of the reconstruction of the holistic process of the problem. The main historiography to the topic was compiled by the editions of the classics of the historical school, which laid down the fundamental knowledge of social history and culture: from ancient times to medieval Ukraine-Rus, of which the Chernihiv-Siverskyi region was a component. An attempt is made to generalize the theory and historical practice of the transformation of the socio-cultural traditions of the Ukrainian population of the South-Eastern region on the basis of the created all-European and nationally original traditions of Ukraine-Rus. They laid common foundations for the life and livelihood of local tribes, the development of territories, agriculture, public organization, customary law, financial and trade relations, diplomacy, spiritual, cultural and artistic life. Because of the evolution of the development of the components of the Ukrainian nation, a historical transformation and socialization of the transmission of the main spiritual values from paganism to сhristianity took place. On these foundations, the national traditions of consolidating land allotment principalities – Kyiv, Chernihiv, Siver, etc. – have formed and entrenched; hereditary dynasties of the Riurykovych family, in particular the Chernihiv Olhovych, Davydovych; the corresponding composition of the population, characterized by the local climate, flora, fauna, which influenced the character and spirit of the people, proper names - ethnonyms, toponyms, hydronyms.

Armenian (Yerevan Eastern Armenian and Beirut Western Armenian)

Armenian (or , /hɑjeˈɾen/, ISO 639-1 hy) comprises an independent branch of the Indo-European language family.1 Its earliest attested ancestor is Classical Armenian in the fifth century CE (see Godel 1975; Thomson 1989; DeLisi 2015; Macak 2016). Modern Armenian is classified into two dialect families: Eastern Armenian (ISO 639-3 hye) and Western Armenian (ISO 639-3 hyw). Eastern Armenian is spoken in modern-day Armenia, and large speaker communities also exist in Georgia, Russia and Iran (shown in Figure 1). Western Armenian was historically spoken in the Ottoman Empire, but now includes varieties spoken throughout the Armenian diaspora in the Middle East, Europe, and the Americas (Donabédian 2018). There are substantial Western Armenian speaker communities in Turkey (Istanbul), Lebanon (Beirut), Syria (Aleppo, Damascus), California (Fresno, Los Angeles County), France (Marseilles), Australia (Sydney) and Argentina (Buenos Aires). There are also recent diaspora communities of Eastern Armenian speakers in California (Karapetian 2014), as well as communities of Western Armenian speakers in Armenia who escaped the Armenian genocide during World War I, who repatriated after World War II, or who fled the ongoing Syrian civil war. UNESCO lists Western Armenian as an endangered language in Turkey, and there are significant language promotion efforts in many diaspora communities that are intended to combat declining use by speaker generations born in the Americas and Europe (Al-Bataineh 2015; Chahinian & Bakalian 2016).