Census Of Housing Research Articles

2023 Obesity Fact Sheet: Prevalence of Obesity and Abdominal Obesity in Adults, Adolescents, and Children in Korea from 2012 to 2021.

The 2023 Obesity Fact Sheet aims to present an updated overview of obesity prevalence across all age groups, including children and adolescents. This study included individuals aged ≥20 years (n=16,941,423 in 2021) who underwent health checkups provided by the Korean National Health Insurance Service between 2012 and 2021. The prevalence of obesity and abdominal obesity was standardized by age and sex using data from the 2010 population and housing census. For children and adolescents (6 to 18 years) (n=884 in 2021), we used the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2012 to 2021), and obesity was defined by the corresponding sex- and age-specific body mass index percentile of 95th or greater based on the 2017 Korean National Growth Chart for Children and Adolescents. The overall prevalence of obesity in 2021 is 38.4% (49.2% in men and 27.8% in women), which is a 1.27-fold increase from 30.2% in 2012. The prevalence of obesity has increased across all age groups, particularly among those aged 20, 30, and 80 years. The prevalence of class III obesity substantially increased from 0.35% (men) and 0.42% (women) in 2012 to 1.21% and 0.97% in 2021, with 3.46- and 2.31-fold increases, respectively. This increase was particularly pronounced in young adults. The prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents has surged from 9.7% in 2012 to 19.3% in 2021, with a greater increase among boys. Our study provides information on the current status of obesity prevalence based on the 2023 Obesity Fact Sheet, emphasizing the urgency of implementing timely strategies to reverse this increasing trend.

Stratification of Urban Health Centers of Khorramabad Based on Socioeconomic Status of Households Using Factor Analysis and Cluster Analysis

Background: In numerous studies in the field of medical sciences, researchers use health centers as a frame for stratified sampling. Since socioeconomic variables play a major role in health outcomes, the present study aimed to classify urban health centers of Khorramabad in terms of the socioeconomic status of households using factor and cluster analysis. Materials and Methods: In this cross-sectional study, the statistical population included all urban areas of Khorramabad based on the population and housing census conducted by the Statistical Center of Iran. Firstly, the scatter maps of urban areas and health centers were adopted together. Thereafter, socioeconomic indexes of urban areas were calculated in seven fields, and exploratory factor analysis was used to reduce dimensions. Finally, the similar health centers in terms of factor scores were allocated to the same clusters by k-means cluster analysis using SPSS software (version 26) and were displayed on city maps using Arc GIS software. Results: Three factors identified in factor analysis explained about 73.3% of the total variance of socioeconomic indexes. Based on cluster analysis, 11 health centers were located in cluster 1 (related to lower educational attainment, poorer housing amenities, and higher rate of homelessness and divorce), 16 centers were located in cluster 2 (related to higher studying persons rate, lower marriage rate in women, lower unemployment rate, and higher residence in apartment flats) and 10 health centers were located in cluster 3 (related to higher academic graduates, more profitable jobs, and better housing amenities). Conclusion: The results of this research can be used in health studies in urban areas of Khorramabad as a basis for performing stratified sampling. Furthermore, it is recommended that authorities adopt more effective planning to improve deprived areas in cluster one.

Socioeconomic inequalities in avoidable mortality in Italy: results from a nationwide longitudinal cohort

BackgroundDisparities in avoidable mortality have never been evaluated in Italy at the national level. The present study aimed to assess the association between socioeconomic status and avoidable mortality.MethodsThe nationwide closed cohort of the 2011 Census of Population and Housing was followed up for 2012–2019 mortality. Outcomes of preventable and of treatable mortality were separately evaluated among people aged 30–74. Education level (elementary school or less, middle school, high school diploma, university degree or more) and residence macro area (North-West, North-East, Center, South-Islands) were the exposures, for which adjusted mortality rate ratios (MRRs) were calculated through multivariate quasi-Poisson regression models, adjusted for age at death. Relative index of inequalities was estimated for preventable, treatable, and non-avoidable mortality and for some specific causes.ResultsThe cohort consisted of 35,708,459 residents (48.8% men, 17.5% aged 65–74), 34% with a high school diploma, 33.5% living in the South-Islands; 1,127,760 deaths were observed, of which 65.2% for avoidable causes (40.4% preventable and 24.9% treatable). Inverse trends between education level and mortality were observed for all causes; comparing the least with the most educated groups, a strong association was observed for preventable (males MRR = 2.39; females MRR = 1.65) and for treatable causes of death (males MRR = 1.93; females MRR = 1.45). The greatest inequalities were observed for HIV/AIDS and alcohol-related diseases (both sexes), drug-related diseases and tuberculosis (males), and diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, and renal failure (females). Excess risk of preventable and of treatable mortality were observed for the South-Islands.ConclusionsSocioeconomic inequalities in mortality persist in Italy, with an extremely varied response to policies at the regional level, representing a possible missed gain in health and suggesting a reassessment of priorities and definition of health targets.

Adolescent Childbearing and Associated Factors in Vietnam

This research examines the factors influencing adolescent girl childbirth in Vietnam by employing data from the 2019 Vietnam Population and Housing Census and socio-ecological theory. The research underscores the substantial impact of environmental systems on adolescent childbirth, encompassing age, marital status, educational level, living area, and ethnicity. Higher adolescent birth rates are observed among older adolescents, ethnic minorities, and those with lower levels of education; this highlights the significance of cultural norms, restricted healthcare access, and poverty in influencing these results. The study emphasizes the importance of education, access to healthcare, and community support in mitigating the occurrence of pregnancies among adolescents. It further advocates for focused interventions that enhance the development of human capital, with a specific focus on rural regions and ethnic minority populations. To lessen the hazards associated with adolescent pregnancy, the study recommends policies that reduce child marriage and early motherhood and enhance education and knowledge on sexual and reproductive health.

The impact of compulsory primary education law on the educational attainment of children: Evidence from Vietnam

AbstractThis study examines the short‐term impact of the compulsory primary education law (CPEL) on the educational attainment of children in Vietnam. This study uses the 1999 Vietnam Population and Housing Census and survival analysis to account for the right‐censoring problem in the educational outcomes of children. The study found that CPEL reduces the dropout rate of children by 12%. However, the effect is minor, especially when compared with the impact of family income and parents' education. This finding is similar to those of other studies, suggesting that in addition to CPEL, other family income support and parent‐oriented policies are crucial to improving children's educational attainment.

M-W 모형 비교분석과 수도권 주택수요 추정 - 선형·비선형·가구기반 모형을 중심으로

This study aims to derive a housing demand analysis model suitable for the changing population and household structure. To this end, the modified M-W linear model, modified M-W non-linear model, and modified M-W household-based model were estimated using the 2010 MDIS housing survey data. The models were tested against the total housing area in 2021 from the Population and Housing Census to validate them in an out-of-sample spirit. The models were also used to estimate the long-term housing demand in the Seoul metropolitan area up to 2030. The analysis results suggest that the household-based M-W model can be best used to estimate housing demand when the number of households is growing rapidly compared to the number of people and household characteristics are dominant. Still, the population and household structure are changing, so an appropriate housing demand analysis model should be used depending on the time.

Ethnic heterogeneity and healthcare utilization: The mediating role of poverty in Ghana

AbstractsThe healthcare that a woman receives during pregnancy, at the time of delivery, and soon after delivery is imperative for the well-being and survival of both the mother and her child. Hence, understanding the factors that influence the utilization of healthcare around the period of birth is important for improving the health of the mother and her child as well as reducing maternal mortality. Although numerous studies have examined the factors that influence the utilization of healthcare around the period of birth, no study has considered the role of ethnic heterogeneity. This paper bridges a significant gap in the literature by reporting findings from the first study that examines the effect of ethnic heterogeneity on healthcare utilization in Ghana. The study utilized data from both the Demographic Health Survey and Ghana Population and Housing Census. Our estimates show that a unit increase in a heterogenous ethnic group lowers the likelihood of utilizing healthcare at the time of birth and after delivery via increasing household poverty.

Application of the performance of machine learning techniques as support in the prediction of school dropout

This article presents a study, intending to design a model with 90% reliability, which helps in the prediction of school dropouts in higher and secondary education institutions, implementing machine learning techniques. The collection of information was carried out with open data from the 2015 Intercensal Survey and the 2010 and 2020 Population and Housing censuses carried out by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography, which contain information about the inhabitants and homes. in the 32 federal entities of Mexico. The data were homologated and twenty variables were selected, based on the correlation. After cleaning the data, there was a sample of 1,080,782 records in total. Supervised learning was used to create the model, automating data processing with training and testing, applying the following techniques, Artificial Neural Networks, Support Vector Machines, Linear Ridge and Lasso Regression, Bayesian Optimization, Random Forest, the first two with a reliability greater than 99% and the last with 91%.

Responding to preventable causes of maternal and perinatal deaths in Homabay County

Background: The Kenya population and housing census (2019) ranked Homabay County among the 15 counties with the highest maternal mortality rate (MMR) of 516 deaths in 100,000 livebirths and neonatal mortality rate (NMR) of 26 in 1,000 livebirths. Baseline assessment reported gaps including dysfunctional maternal and perinatal death surveillance and response system, and untimely perinatal deaths audited. Other challenges contributing to near misses and mortality include erratic availability of blood/blood products, staff shortages affecting the offering of CEmONC services, interfacility referral challenges, not exploiting partnerships with private and faith-based health facilities in the county, and HCW knowledge and skills deficit, especially in management of common causes of death, such as postpartum hemorrhage and eclampsia Methods: MCGL’s objective was to work with the County’s leadership to revitalize the MPDSR system and work toward responding to the causes and avoidable factors contributing to the high burden of maternal and perinatal deaths in the County. MCGL trained HCWs on harvesting and handling of blood products, management of PPH and eclampsia, development of county referral strategy, linkage to private and faith-based HFs, capabilities, support weekly MPDSR committee meetings, develop, and roll out MPDSR of weekly monitoring tool, formation of QI teams, and support for social accountability activities. Results: Improved implementation of MPDSR action points included increased number of CEmONC health facilities, availability and access to blood during PPH emergencies, and point-of-care ultrasound machines in 13 health facilities. There was notable improvement of timely perinatal deaths of audits 47% (70/152). Conclusions: Deliberate and collective effort by the leadership with close follow-up can improve timely auditing and response , which improves the quality of care for mothers and newborns receiving HFs.

CONDITION, PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES OF THE LABOR FORCE IN RURAL AREAS OF BULGARIA

The specific features in the socio-economic development of rural areas in Bulgaria are the basis of non-uniform processes and trends in the formation of local labor force contingents. Based on data from the population and housing censuses conducted in 2011 and 2021, the dynamics of the labor force in rural areas of Bulgaria, as well as its structure by age, gender and education, are analyzed in this study. The research aims to outline the regions with the most serious problems with the reproduction of the labor force through a comparative analysis of the potential of the labor force in rural areas, urban areas and the average level for the country. Emphasis is placed on the impact of changes in the age structure of the working-age population (aging) on the general level of activity, as well as the degree of demographic and economic burden on the labor force throughout the study period. The changes in the structure of the labor force in rural areas are examined in detail and the prospects for the reproduction of the labor force in the short term are outlined. Based on the conclusions, some of the problems facing the effective use of the available labor force in rural areas were analyzed and recommendations were formulated regarding the necessary and adequate changes in the demographic policy, to promote the birth rate and retain a young labor force in the local labor markets. Keywords: Labor force, aging, unemployment, demographic reproduction, rural areas JEL: J20; J21; Е24

The contextual awareness, response and evaluation (CARE) diabetes project: study design for a quantitative survey of diabetes prevalence and non-communicable disease risk in Ga Mashie, Accra, Ghana

ABSTRACT Diabetes is estimated to affect between 3.3% and 8.3% of adults in Ghana, and prevalence is expected to rise. The lack of cost-effective diabetes prevention programmes designed specifically for the Ghanaian population warrants urgent attention. The Contextual Awareness, Response and Evaluation (CARE): Diabetes Project in Ghana is a mixed methods study that aims to understand diabetes in the Ga Mashie area of Accra, identify opportunities for community-based intervention and inform future diabetes prevention and control strategies. This paper presents the study design for the quantitative survey within the CARE project. This survey will take place in the densely populated Ga Mashie area of Accra, Ghana. A household survey will be conducted using simple random sampling to select households from 80 enumeration areas identified in the 2021 Ghana Population and Housing Census. Trained enumerators will interview and collect data from permanent residents aged ≥ 25 years. Pregnant women and those who have given birth in the last six months will be excluded. Data analysis will use a combination of descriptive and inferential statistics, and all analyses will account for the cluster sampling design. Analyses will describe the prevalence of diabetes, other morbidities, and associated risk factors and identify the relationship between diabetes and physical, social, and behavioural parameters. This survey will generate evidence on drivers and consequences of diabetes and facilitate efforts to prevent and control diabetes and other NCDs in urban Ghana, with relevance for other low-income communities.

Spatiotemporal changes in hurricane-force wind risk assessment in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico

Tropical cyclones are one of the most dangerous natural phenomena. These extreme events involve various hazards, such as strong winds, severe precipitation, storm surge, flooding, and landslides. In Mexico, tropical cyclones are the most frequent natural threats and have a high cost to affected populations. This research aimed to characterise the spatial and temporal changes in risk associated with hurricane winds on the Yucatan Peninsula. This effort included a comprehensive analysis of three integral risk components (hazard, vulnerability, and exposure) for three distinct time intervals (1950–2000, 1950–2010, and 1950–2020). This analytical process was executed utilising a fine-resolution hexagonal grid. Hazard was estimated by calculating the probabilities of occurrence of winds related to various hurricane categories after estimating wind fields from the International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship (IBTrACS) data with a parametric model. Vulnerability was approximated by constructing indicators with sociodemographic data from the National Population and Housing Census issued by Mexico’s National Institute of Statistics and Geography. With these indicators, a factor analysis was performed, and a weighted index was constructed. Finally, exposure was estimated from population density. Each of these indices was aggregated at the hexagonal level, allowing the calculation of the risk associated with hurricane-force wind. The results showed high-risk levels associated with high-hazard levels, e.g. in coastal areas such as the Riviera Maya. Similarly, high-risk levels are related to high marginalisation, i.e. vulnerability, in the northeastern zone of the Yucatan Peninsula. The increased frequency of tropical cyclones combined with high population densities has recently led to higher risk levels in this region of Mexico.

Inclusive education and school dropout of special needs students in Morocco: A spatial analysis

AbstractAs a specific driver for the transformation of education systems in Morocco, inclusive education is a process that aims to reduce the exclusion of children with disabilities. Indeed, few studies have analysed the exclusion factors that cause children with disabilities not to pursue their education. Based on this, the present paper explores the spatial effect of factors related to accessibility and school supply. The database is from the latest national survey of the 2014 General Census of Population and Housing for the 75 provinces of Morocco. The designated age group is children aged 10–14 years. Exploratory spatial analysis has allowed us to map the hotspots of school dropout risk. The results of the spatial heterogeneity show a deficit in the distribution of accessibilities and the supply of paramedical services. From economic policy, we emphasise the need for spatial equity in the geographic distribution of inclusive education provision. The equitable distribution of psychological conditions for school retention is a straightforward factor in the success of the inclusive education model in Morocco.

Prevalence and correlates of disability in older adults, Ghana: evidence from the Ghana 2021 Population and Housing Census

BackgroundAlthough there are studies on disabilities in older persons, most of these studies have been carried out in developed countries. Hence, there are limited studies on disability in older adults in sub-Saharan Africa, including Ghana. The few studies that have examined the prevalence and correlates of disability in older adults used survey data for their analyses. To contribute to addressing this knowledge gap that has arisen, this study used a national census, the 2021 Ghana Population and Housing Census, to examine the prevalence and correlates of disability in older adults in Ghana.MethodsThe 2021 Ghana Population and Housing Census data was used for this study. A sample size of 197,057 Ghanaians aged 60 years and above was used for this study. The Washington Group questions on disability were used to measure disability by asking older adults about their difficulties in performing the six domains of disability (physical, sight, intellectual, hearing, self-care, and speech). A multinomial logistic regression housed in STATA was used to analyse the correlates of disability in older adults in Ghana. A p-value less than 0.05 was used for statistical significance.ResultsThe results show that slightly more than one-third (38.4%) of the older adults were disabled. In terms of the number of disabilities in older adults, 16.9% had one disability condition, while 2.4% had six disability conditions. Also, 9.4% had two disability conditions. Older adults who were females, aged 70–79 years and 80 years and above, resided in rural areas, with primary, JHS/Middle, SHS, unaffiliated with religion, ever married and never married, unemployed, and belonged to the middle and rich households were more likely to have a disability condition. Also, older adults residing in the Middle and Northern zones, having no health insurance, and using clean cooking fuel were less likely to have a disability condition.ConclusionsThe results show that socio-demographic and household factors were associated with disability in older adults in Ghana. Hence, policymakers and researchers should target these factors when designing appropriate policies, programmes, and interventions to improve the wellbeing of older adults.

Blockchain-Based Implementation of National Census as a Supplementary Instrument for Enhanced Transparency, Accountability, Privacy, and Security

A national population census is instrumental in offering a holistic view of a country’s progress, directly influencing policy formulation and strategic planning. Potential flaws in the census system can have detrimental impacts on national development. Our prior research has pinpointed various deficiencies in current census methodologies, including inadequate population coverage, racial and ethnic discrimination, and challenges related to data privacy, security, and distribution. This study aims to address the “missing persons” challenge in the national census population and housing system. The integration of blockchain technology emerges as a promising solution for addressing these identified issues, enhancing the integrity and efficacy of census processes. Building upon our earlier research which examined the national census system of Pakistan, we propose an architecture design incorporating Hyperledger Fabric, performing system sizing for the entire nation count. The Blockchain-Based Implementation of National Census as a Supplementary Instrument for Enhanced Transparency, Accountability, Privacy, and Security (BINC-TAPS) seeks to provide a robust, transparent, scalable, immutable, and tamper-proof solution for conducting national population and housing censuses, while also fostering socio-economic advancements. This paper presents a comprehensive overview of our research, with a primary focus on the implementation of the blockchain-based proposed solution, including prototype testing and the resulting outcomes.

Scenario of Zakah Management in Bangladesh: A Critical Analysis

The aim of the study is to describe and analyze the real scenario of zakah management in Bangladesh. Zakah is an important tool to eradicate poverty in the country and it can play a vital role in alleviating unemployment too. About 91.04% of the total population of the country is Muslim (Population and Housing Census, 2022, p. 8). A good number of Muslims are capable of paying zakah annually. However, the zakah management system in urban or rural areas is poor. And the capable people on whom zakah is compulsory are not so positive about distributing zakah among (mustahaqqun1) the beneficiary group. Almost, all of the zakah payers are not aware enough to pay zakah in the defined Sariah way. Only a few people legally pay their zakah portion among the eligible class. For this, the actual method of zakah distribution management in Bangladesh is not exercised and executed properly. This is why, the real beneficiary group is not facilitated in a systematic way. This study also tries to focus on the challenges of zakah distribution management in Bangladesh and tries to highlight the effective recommendations for resolving these problems.

Spatial distribution and temporal trends of tuberculosis case notifications, Uganda: a ten-year retrospective analysis (2013–2022)

BackgroundUganda has a high incidence and prevalence of tuberculosis (TB). Analysis of spatial and temporal distribution of TB is an important tool for supporting spatial decision-making, planning, and policy formulations; however, this information is not readily available in Uganda. We determined the spatial distribution and temporal trends of tuberculosis notifications in Uganda, 2013–2022.MethodsWe conducted a retrospective analysis of routinely-generated program data reported through the National TB and Leprosy Programme (NTLP) surveillance system. We abstracted data on all TB cases diagnosed from 2013 to 2022 by district and region. We drew choropleth maps for Uganda showing the TB case notification rates (CNR) per 100,000 and calculated the CNR using the cases per district as the numerator and individual district populations as the denominators. Population estimates were obtained from the 2014 National Population and Housing Census, and a national growth rate of 3% was used to estimate the annual population increase.ResultsOver the entire study period, 568,957 cases of TB were reported in Uganda. There was a 6% annual increase in TB CNR reported from 2013 (134/100,000) to 2022 (213/100,000) (p-value for trend p < 0.00001). Cases were reported from all 12 Ministry of Health regions during the entire period. The distribution of CNR was heterogeneous throughout the country and over time. Moroto, Napak and Kampala districts had consistently high CNR throughout the ten years. Kalangala district had lower CNR from 2013 to 2018 but high CNR from 2019 to 2022. Moroto region, in the northeast, had consistently high CNR while Mbale and Soroti regions in Eastern Uganda had the lowest CNR throughout the ten years.ConclusionThere was an overall increasing trend in TB CNR from 2013 to 2022. We recommend that the National TB program institutes intensified measures aided by more funding to mitigate and reverse the negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on TB.

Exploring Spatial Variation of Women’s Tetanus Vaccination in Ethiopia: Spatial Analysis of Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey 2016

Tetanus is a bacterial infection that causes painful muscular contractions throughout the body, usually starting in the jaw. Every year, 15,000 to 30,000 maternal deaths occur due to tetanus related to the delivery process. Exploring variations of women’s tetanus immunization is crucial for programmers’ planning and monitoring. As a result, this study aims to evaluate the spatial distribution of women’s tetanus vaccination coverage and risk areas of women’s tetanus vaccination clustering in Ethiopia. The study used Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey data, which was conducted in 2016 using the Ethiopia Population and Housing Census 2007 sampling frame. From 15,683 women aged 15 to 49, a sample of 7,193 women was selected using eligible criteria. This study used spatial data analysis. To determine geographical danger zones for tetanus vaccination of women, cluster, hotspot analysis, spatial interpolation, and spatial scan statistics were used. At the regional level of Ethiopia, tetanus vaccination was spatially clustered (Global Moran’s I = 0.066, p = .0001). Western Tigray, eastern SNNP, and northern Oromia were identified as hotspots of poor tetanus vaccine coverage, whereas western Oromia, Afar, and southeast Amhara regions were designated as non-risky areas of Ethiopia. The spatial Bayesian kriging interpolation analysis predicted high-risk areas were the southwestern and eastern parts of Oromia, western Tigray, Harari, and Dire Dawa Western Tigray, the eastern SNNP, southern Amhara, and northern Oromia have been recognized as a significant hotspot. Health workers, programmers, government, and non-governmental organizations in Ethiopia will implement spatially based strategic interventions for women’s tetanus immunization.

Do black women's lives matter? A study of the hidden impact of the barriers to access maternal healthcare for migrant women in South Africa.

Studies on the barriers migrant women face when trying to access healthcare services in South Africa have emphasized economic factors, fear of deportation, lack of documentation, language barriers, xenophobia, and discrimination in society and in healthcare institutions as factors explaining migrants' reluctance to seek healthcare. Our study aims to visualize some of the outcome effects of these barriers by analyzing data on maternal death and comparing the local population and black African migrant women from the South African Development Countries (SADC) living in South Africa. The heightened maternal mortality of black migrant women in South Africa can be associated with the hidden costs of barriers migrants face, including xenophobic attitudes experienced at public healthcare institutions. Our analysis is based on data on reported causes of death (COD) from the South African Department of Home Affairs (DHA). Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) processed the data further and coded the cause of death (COD) according to the WHO classification of disease, ICD10. The dataset is available on the StatsSA website (http://nesstar.statssa.gov.za:8282/webview/) for research and statistical purposes. The entire dataset consists of over 10 million records and about 50 variables of registered deaths that occurred in the country between 1997 and 2018. For our analysis, we have used data from 2002 to 2015, the years for which information on citizenship is reliably included on the death certificate. Corresponding benchmark data, in which nationality is recorded, exists only for a 10% sample from the population and housing census of 2011. Mid-year population estimates (MYPE) also exist but are not disaggregated by nationality. For this reason, certain estimates of death proportions by nationality will be relative and will not correspond to crude death rates. The total number of female deaths recorded from the years 2002 to 2015 in the country was 3740.761. Of these, 99.09% (n = 3,707,003) were deaths of South Africans and 0.91% (n = 33,758) were deaths of SADC women citizens. For maternal mortality, we considered the total number of deaths recorded for women between the ages of 15 and 49 years of age and were 1,530,495 deaths. Of these, deaths due to pregnancy-related causes contributed to approximately 1% of deaths. South African women contributed to 17,228 maternal deaths and SADC women to 467 maternal deaths during the period under study. The odds ratio for this comparison was 2.02. In other words, our findings show the odds of a black migrant woman from a SADC country dying of a maternal death were more than twice that of a South African woman. This result is statistically significant as this odds ratio, 2.02, falls within the 95% confidence interval (1.82-2.22). The study is the first to examine and compare maternal death among two groups of women, women from SADC countries and South Africa, based on Stats SA data available for the years 2002-2015. This analysis allows for a better understanding of the differential impact that social determinants of health have on mortality among black migrant women in South Africa and considers access to healthcare as a determinant of health. As we examined maternal death, we inferred that the heightened mortality among black migrant women in South Africa was associated with various determinants of health, such as xenophobic attitudes of healthcare workers toward foreigners during the study period. The negative attitudes of healthcare workers toward migrants have been reported in the literature and the media. Yet, until now, its long-term impact on the health of the foreign population has not been gaged. While a direct association between the heightened death of migrant populations and xenophobia cannot be established in this study, we hope to offer evidence that supports the need to focus on the heightened vulnerability of black migrant women in South Africa. As we argued here, the heightened maternal mortality among migrant women can be considered hidden barriers in which health inequality and the pervasive effects of xenophobia perpetuate the health disparity of SADC migrants in South Africa.

Evaluation of vulnerability to Tsunamis in the city of Puntarenas, Costa Rica

An estimate of vulnerability to tsunamis was made in the city of Puntarenas, Costa Rica, using the Minimum Geostatistical Units (UGM) contained in the 2011 Population and Housing Census for the country. Vulnerability was defined based on four subvariables: disabled and dependent population, poverty, education and exposure, which in turn were grouped into two variables: socioeconomic and environmental, to finally have a total of 13 explanatory indicators. Once the vulnerability scheme was defined, the census information was collected and the calculations were made. The results obtained were four maps for each subvariable and an integrated map of the vulnerability index.