Heavy Infestation Research Articles

Evaluation of Potato Cultivars and Breeding Lines for Resistance to Globodera Rostochiensis and Globodera Pallida

Abstract Nematodes are among the most important agents affecting potato crops. Heavy infestations by Globodera rostochiensis and G. pallida can cause significant yield losses and limit the choice of potato cultivars that can be grown effectively (Oerke, 2006). Breeding of new potato cultivar resistant to G. rostochiensis and G. pallida is a long-term process. It is preceded by screening of potato breeding lines for resistance in repeated biotests, which seems to be the most effective and safest method of protection. Evaluation of nematode resistance is an important element of characterization of breeding lines and new cultivars. Resistance to Globodera spp. is evaluated in biological tests. The use of DNA markers for detecting nematode resistance genes may be an alternative approach to phenotypic evaluation of resistance degree of potato plants (Jena and Mackill, 2008). The goal of this report is focused on a description of resistance assessment procedure of breeding lines and varieties of potato to PCN and on comparison of biological and molecular methods of resistance evaluation. Presented information is addressed to both breeders and Polish inspection services.

Sea lice (Ceratothoa oestroides), (Rissa, 1826), infestation in Mediterranean aquaculture: new information

Arthropoda parasites of fish are: Copepoda, Branchiura and Isopoda. The Branchiura are exclusively parasitic, while most of the Copepoda and Isopoda are free-living. About 450 species of isopods are parasites of marine and freshwater fish. Isopods are Malacostraca. In the isopod families Cymothoidae and Anilocridae, which number about 200 species, are parasitic species that remain on the fish body throughout their life. The main genus/species of interest to the Greek marine fish farmers is Ceratothoa oestroides. Other isopod species (Flabellifera-Cymothoidae, Anilocridae) have been reported to infest net-pen reared sea bass and/or sea bream, such as: Anilocra physodes, Nerocila orbignyi, Emetha audouini, Ceratothoa parallela. The name "Anilocra" is widely used by farmers for any type of isopods infesting their fish. A mature gravid female isopod releases about 400-550 larvae at a time. Ceratothoa sp are constantly fertile, remaining in reproductive condition throughout the year. Fecundity and hatching rate increase in warmer temperatures, July being the period of optimum isopod proliferation in the Mediterranean.Members of these families (Cymothoidae, Anilocridae) are protandrus hermaphrodites, i.e. an individual develops and functions first as a male and then may become a female. Sexual differentiation takes place after the pulii II larvae have left the marsupium. Regarding the most sensitive age of the fish hosts when the parasites attach in their buccal cavity, empirical observations agree with research results that there is a significant correlation between the level of infection and the length of the host. Fish fry are the evident target for isopod attachment. Ceratothoa oestroides pulii II larvae remain free swimming and capable of infecting a host for about 7 days at 22°C. During this period, in case the host dies, after successful settlement of the parasite, the isopod larvae immediately abandon the dead fish and are still capable of actively seeking another. Parasitic isopods are fairly common crustacean infestations of wild tropical marine fish.They are less common in cold marine waters and not often found on freshwater fish. The distribution of parasitic isopods, as that of all other parasites, is closely related to the occurrence and ecology of their hosts. Demersal fish in coastal waters are mainly infected, the parasites being rarer in benthic- and pelagic fish. Intensive fish farming in coastal waters in the Mediterranean provides an almost ideal environment for isopod parasites, hence, farmed sea bream (Sparus auratus), but mostly sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) infestations by isopods comprise a frequent problem in the Mediterranean. Ceratothoa oestroides is the most common among the isopod parasites and inflicts major damage to farmed fish. Among the wild fish, the usual hosts of parasitic isopods are mullets (Mugil sp., Liza sp.), bogues (Boops boops), goldlines (Boops salpa), striped breams (Lithognathus mormyrus) and white breams (Diplodus sargus). These fish species abound in the vicinity of sea bream (Sparus auratus) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) net pens feeding on waste feed and comprise the vectors for the transmission of the parasites to the farmed species. Heavy infestations of parasitic larvae may kill smaller fish when they first infect them, while seeking permanent attachment. Injured tissues are frequently invaded by secondary bacterial pathogens, such as Aeromonas sp., Flexibacter sp., Vibrio sp. and this may lead to severe escalation of mortality. In young stocks, the cumulative mortality due to parasitism by the pulii II larvae may run as high as 15% even without any bacterial implications. Isopod infestation is confirmed by gross observation of the parasites on the skin, mouth or in the gill chamber of the fish. Recommended prevention would be mainly by means of stock management measures. Excessive fish densities in the fry holding pens must be avoided. Often, in cases of heavy parasitism and mortality, reducing the fish density is enough by itself to remedy the situation. It is worth noting that on farms, where injection vaccination of sea bass is routinely performed, manual delousing of the anaesthetised fish, by means of small blunt forceps, prior to injecting results in a sharp drop of fish retaining adult isopods. Treatment of isopod larvae infestations has been attempted with considerable success by means of hourly formalin baths, at concentrations of about 150ppm, subsequent to enclosing the fish in a tarpaulin and providing ample water oxygenation. Laboratory and field experiments with deltamethrin (pyrethroid), in live fish and in isolated parasites, have indicated that the minimum effective in vitro dose, that kills Ceratothoa oestroides adults in 30 minutes, is 0.05mg/litre.

Worm Infestation: Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention.

Worm infections continue to be among the most common diseases affecting children from low and middle income countries. Major worm infections of public health importance include Ascariasis, Trichuriasis, Hookworm, and Enterobiasis, which are transmitted through contaminated soil. In India, combined prevalence rates of worm infestation as per pooled data of 127 surveys is over 20%. Although most helminthic infections are mild and are often asymptomatic, but moderate to heavy worm infestations are generally associated with growth faltering, nutritional compromise, anemia and suboptimal academic performance among children from endemic regions. Migration of larval or adult worms also underpins pulmonary and gastrointestinal morbidity in affected children. Some of the distinctive life cycle and clinical features of various worms are discussed in the review. The gold standard diagnostic technique for evaluation of worm infestation includes stool microscopy for direct egg detection and species identification. Most of the community based surveys for detecting soil transmitted helminths (STH) use Kato-Katz technique. The drug armamentarium against worm infestation has evolved tremendously in last three to four decades with the availability of more efficacious and broad spectrum anthelminthics. The key strategies of a multi-component integrated management of worm infestation include individualized treatment, community management (mass drug administration) as well as preventive measures. Finally, barriers to diagnosis, treatment and prevention of worm infestations need to be identified and aggressively managed at individual, family and societal levels so that WHO's 75% coverage target can be achieved to eliminate soil transmitted helminthiasis in children by 2020.

Tropical forest light regimes in a human-modified landscape.

Light is the key energy input for all vegetated systems. Forest light regimes are complex, with the vertical pattern of light within canopies influenced by forest structure. Human disturbances in tropical forests impact forest structure and hence may influence the light environment and thus competitiveness of different trees. In this study, we measured vertical diffuse light profiles along a gradient of anthropogenic disturbance, sampling intact, logged, secondary, and fragmented sites in the biodiversity hot spot of the Atlantic forest, southeast Brazil, using photosynthetically active radiation sensors and a novel approach with estimations of vertical light profiles from hemispherical photographs. Our results show clear differences in vertical light profiles with disturbance: Fragmented forests are characterized by rapid light extinction within their low canopies, while the profiles in logged forests show high heterogeneity and high light in the mid‐canopy despite decades of recovery. The secondary forest showed similar light profiles to intact forest, but with a lower canopy height. We also show that in some cases the upper canopy layer and heavy liana infestations can severely limit light penetration. Light extinction with height above the ground and depth below the canopy top was highest in fragmented forest and negatively correlated with canopy height. The novel, inexpensive, and rapid methods described here can be applied to other sites to quantify rarely measured vertical light profiles.

Combined Field Inoculations of Pseudomonas Bacteria, Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi, and Entomopathogenic Nematodes and their Effects on Wheat Performance.

In agricultural ecosystems, pest insects, pathogens, and reduced soil fertility pose major challenges to crop productivity and are responsible for significant yield losses worldwide. Management of belowground pests and diseases remains particularly challenging due to the complex nature of the soil and the limited reach of conventional agrochemicals. Boosting the presence of beneficial rhizosphere organisms is a potentially sustainable alternative and may help to optimize crop health and productivity. Field application of single beneficial soil organisms has shown satisfactory results under optimal conditions. This might be further enhanced by combining multiple beneficial soil organisms, but this remains poorly investigated. Here, we inoculated wheat plots with combinations of three beneficial soil organisms that have different rhizosphere functions and studied their effects on crop performance. Plant beneficial Pseudomonas bacteria, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), and entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN), were inoculated individually or in combinations at seeding, and their effects on plant performance were evaluated throughout the season. We used traditional and molecular identification tools to monitor their persistence over the cropping season in augmented and control treatments, and to estimate the possible displacement of native populations. In three separate trials, beneficial soil organisms were successfully introduced into the native populations and readily survived the field conditions. Various Pseudomonas, mycorrhiza, and nematode treatments improved plant health and productivity, while their combinations provided no significant additive or synergistic benefits compared to when applied alone. EPN application temporarily displaced some of the native EPN, but had no significant long-term effect on the associated food web. The strongest positive effect on wheat survival was observed for Pseudomonas and AMF during a season with heavy natural infestation by the frit fly, Oscinella frit, a major pest of cereals. Hence, beneficial impacts differed between the beneficial soil organisms and were most evident for plants under biotic stress. Overall, our findings indicate that in wheat production under the test conditions the three beneficial soil organisms can establish nicely and are compatible, but their combined application provides no additional benefits. Further studies are required, also in other cropping systems, to fine-tune the functional interactions among beneficial soil organisms, crops, and the environment.

Acaricidal potency of polyherbal spray against Rhipicephalus microplus and Hyalomma anatolicum infestation in cattle.

Acaricidal potential of polyherbal spray (Andropogon citrates, Cymbopogon citratus, Ocimum sanctum, Pinus longifoia, Calotropis procera, Datura stramonium, Aegle marmelos, Ricinus communis, Azadirachta indica, Allium sativum, Carica papaya, Annona squamosa and Pongamia glabra) was assessed against tick infestation in cattle on the basis of measurement of tick count, complete blood count and plasma glucose, total protein, albumin and globulin before treatment and 21days after treatment. Single application of polyherbal spray over body of 20 randomly selected tick infested cattle revealed significant reduction in mean tick count starting from 3days post treatment till 21days post treatment. Highly significant (P<0.01) increase in total erythrocyte count and packed cell volume was observed in treated cows 21days after application of spray compared to pre-treatment values indicating the reduction in blood loss due to heavy tick infestation before treatment. Plasma biochemical parameters revealed no significant changes in pre-treatment and post treatment values. The results of present study imply the clinical and haematological improvement in tick infested cattle treated with polyherbal spray and it could be potential product for use in livestock as acaricide.

Duodenal perforation with Ascaris lumbricoides in a child: A case report

Gastrointestinal infestation with Ascaris lumbricoides is common in temperate and tropical countries. Although heavy worm infestation produces wide range of acute abdominal complications, duodenal perforation in association with ascariasis, especially in children, is rarely reported. We report a case of 5-year-old girl with duodenal perforation secondary to ascariasis.

Cold acclimation reduces predation rate and reproduction but increases cold- and starvation tolerance in the predatory mite Gaeolaelaps aculeifer Canestrini

Ectotherms respond to their thermal environments by physiological acclimation, which increases tolerance to thermal extremes and may increase field performance. However, acclimation often has costs, and increased performance in some traits may be associated with reduced performance in other traits due to trade-offs. We investigated effects of thermal acclimation on predation, reproduction, starvation tolerance, and locomotor activity in the predatory mite Gaeolaelaps aculeifer Canestrini at 10, 15, and 20°C after seven days of exposure to either of the same three temperatures, following rearing at 20°C. To test for effects of cold acclimation on cold tolerance, another set of mites were acclimated at each of the three temperatures over four days including an additional group at 5°C, and survival was assayed following a 24h exposure to −2°C. Our results showed highest cold- and starvation tolerance but lowest predation and reproduction across test temperatures in mites acclimated to 10°C. These relationships were intermediate after 15°C acclimation and opposite after 20°C acclimation. Locomotor activity was unaffected by acclimation temperature. Since predation and reproduction of G. aculeifer are lowered across temperatures after cold acclimation, we recommend keeping cultures at 20°C without cold exposure until release in the field when used against heavy pest infestations. However, if using G. aculeifer to keep small infestations minimized, we recommend using cold acclimated mites that better tolerate low temperature and low prey availability. Such thermal and metabolic robustness could be advantageous if predatory control agents are introduced in agroecosystems in early spring to prevent establishment of pest populations.

Ecological Studies on Aulacaspis tubercularis (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) and Its Associated Natural Enemies on Mango Trees at Qaliobiya Governorate, Egypt.

Studies on some ecological aspects of Aulacaspis tubercularis Newstead (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) and its associated parasitoids and predators on mango trees were carried out at Benha district, Qaliobiya Governorate, Egypt, during two successive years (2014- 2015 and 2015- 2016). The obtained results showed that A. tubercularis had four peaks of activity during April, June, September and January and also, had four overlapping generations in the two seasons of study. Three species of predators were Chrysoperlla carnae (Stephens), Hemisarcoptes coccophagus (Meyer) and Chilocorus bipustulatus (Linnaeus) and three parasitoids species were Habrolepissp. Encarsia sp.and Aphytis sp. were found associated with A. tubercularis on mango leaves. The highest population was in autumn and summer and lowest population was in winter. The heaviest infestations of A. tubercularis were recorded in south and east directions and the upper leaf surface was preferable compared with the lower.

Two aphid species newly introduced in Greece

In this paper we report two aphid species as new records for the Greek and the European aphid fauna. The species are Aphis odinae (van der Goot) and Melanaphis sorghi (Theobald) (Hemiptera: Aphididae). The former was found on Pittosporum spp. in Thessaloniki, northern Greece, and the latter on Sorghum halepense (L.) in Messolonghi, southern Greece, and also in Thessaloniki. Heavy infestations in Pittosporum trees by A. odinae have not been observed and M. sorghi was not detected in cultivated sorghum or maize in the few inspections we made. Thus, according to our inspections neither of these species is as yet of economic importance in Greece. These two species increase the number of aphid species recorded in Greece to 335.

Preliminary study in the use of electric current for the control of Rhynchophorus ferrugineus

The use of electric current is being studied as a method to control Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). The infested palm trees were pruned according to the severity of the infestation (heavy infestation requires more intense pruning). Then, electrolytes were injected into the palm trees to elevate conductivity. Electric current of specific voltage and amperage was coursed through the palm trees, using specifically designed electrodes; Electric current was applied for 20 min to 1 hour depending on the severity of the infestation and the size of the palm tree. A small number of palm trees were shocked, some of which were monitored for side effects due to the shock while others were cut down to monitor pest mortality rates. Larvae were collected and placed in entomological cages. A large percentage of larvae were killed after the shock, while the others showed difficulties in their movement. Six days later 84.78 % of larvae and 96.48 % of pupae were killed but practically all of the adults survived. Electric current has never been used in this way to control insects before.

First record of a new alien economically important thrips Dichromothrips corbetti (Priesner, 1936) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in Slovakia - short communication

The first record of vanda thrips (Dichromothrips corbetti [Priesner, 1936], Thysanoptera, Thripidae) in Slovakia is presented. An economically important pest with heavy infestations on flowers of Phalaenopsis orchids was recorded as introduced most probably from North African plantations. Potential infiltration of this exotic species into Central European glasshouses refers to the globalisation of trade in biological commodities.

KUTU PUTIH SINGKONG, PHENACOCCUS MANIHOTI MATILE-FERRERO (HEMIPTERA: PSEUDOCOCCIDAE): PERSEBARAN GEOGRAFI DI PULAU JAWA DAN RINTISAN PENGENDALIAN HAYATI

Cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae): Geographic distribution in Java and initiation of biological control. Cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero (Hemiptera: Psedococcidae), is a recently introduced pest in Indonesia. Parasitoid Anagyrus lopezi (De Santis) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) was imported to control the pest. Studies were conducted to determine geographic distribution of P. manihoti throughout Java, and to evaluate the potential of the parasitoid as a biological control agent. Geographic distribution of the pest was determined through field survey, whereas evaluation of the parasitoid was studied through cage experiment and field release. Our survey revealed that the cassava mealybug has spread throughout Java. Heavy infestations caused shortened and distorted stems, complete defoliation, and stunted growth. In cages containing only mealybugs, all cassava plants (100%) died after two months. Whereas in cages containing both mealybugs and three pairs of parasitoid, rate of parasitization was 25% and plant mortality 20%. Parasitoids released in the field were able to survive, reproduce, and establish under Bogor climatic condition. These might indicate that parasitoid A. lopezi is a potential natural enemy to be used in biological control program of the cassava mealybug.

A Review of Iron‐Coating Technology to Stabilize Rice Direct Seeding onto Puddled Soil

Core Ideas The innovation of rice direct seeding with Fe‐coated seeds was analyzed. The Fe‐coated seeds were prepared through the oxidation of reduced Fe on husks. The high‐density Fe‐coated seeds are resistant to birds and seed‐borne diseases. Iron‐coated seeds exhibit improved anchorage in water seeding in puddled fields. Transplanting is a widely practiced traditional plant establishment method for rice (Oryza sativa L.) production in Asia. To reduce costs, there is a desire to change the method from transplanting to direct seeding. Problems associated with this management change include inconsistent seedling establishment and heavy weed infestation. Because puddling in flooded soil, which is a common land preparation in transplanting, destroys the soil structure and smooths the surface, directly seeded seeds float and fail to anchor. This paper analyzes the development of high‐density Fe‐coated seeds and the procedure of water seeding these seeds onto puddled soil. Pre‐germinated seeds were granulated using a mixture of reduced Fe powder and calcined gypsum. The Fe powder on the seed surface was oxidized, producing rust, which serves as a binder for the formation of a hard coating layer. The dried Fe‐coated seeds could be prepared manually or mechanically in large quantities and stored for more than 1 yr at room temperature. The seeds are characterized as resistant to sparrow attack and seed‐borne diseases and are seeded onto the puddled soil surface by broadcasting, row seeding, or hill seeding. In addition, the coated seeds could be successfully seeded onto non‐puddled soils using the water seeding or dry seeding methods. This technology could be applied to rice production worldwide following further study.

Physiological responses of reared sea bream (Sparus aurata Linnaeus, 1758) to an Amyloodinium ocellatum outbreak.

Amyloodiniosis represents a major bottleneck for semi-intensive aquaculture production in Southern Europe, causing extremely high mortalities. Amyloodinium ocellatum is a parasitic dinoflagellate that can infest almost all fish, crustacean and bivalves that live within its ecological range. Fish mortalities are usually attributed to anoxia, associated with serious gill hyperplasia, inflammation, haemorrhage and necrosis in heavy infestations; or with osmoregulatory impairment and secondary microbial infections due to severe epithelial damage in mild infestation. However, physiological information about the host responses to A.ocellatum infestation is scarce. In this work, we analysed the proteome of gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) plasma and relate it with haematological and immunological indicators, in order to enlighten the different physiological responses when exposed to an A.ocellatum outbreak. Using 2D-DIGE, immunological and haematological analysis and in response to the A.ocellatum contamination we have identified several proteins associated with acute-phase response, inflammation, lipid transport, homoeostasis, and osmoregulation, wound healing, neoplasia and iron transport. Overall, this preliminary study revealed that amyloodiniosis affects some fish functional pathways as revealed by the changes in the plasma proteome of S.aurata, and that the innate immunological system is not activated in the presence of the parasite.

Estudio preliminar sobre Fasciola hepatica en Costa Rica

The literature on Fasciola hepatica in Costa Rica is briefly reviewed. The first report of an intermediate host in this country is made: Lymnaea (PIeudosuccinaea) columella Say, found showing heavy natural infestation in Grano de Oro, Moravia de Chirripo, Cartago. Part of the life cycle was experimentatIy observed, infecting rabbits oratIy with melacercariae and finding adult trematodes in their bite ducts three months later. Human inhabitants of the same district were tested with total F. hepatica antigen; out of 82 tests, 47(57%) gave positive reactions.

A pan-European epidemiological study reveals honey bee colony survival depends on beekeeper education and disease control.

Reports of honey bee population decline has spurred many national efforts to understand the extent of the problem and to identify causative or associated factors. However, our collective understanding of the factors has been hampered by a lack of joined up trans-national effort. Moreover, the impacts of beekeeper knowledge and beekeeping management practices have often been overlooked, despite honey bees being a managed pollinator. Here, we established a standardised active monitoring network for 5 798 apiaries over two consecutive years to quantify honey bee colony mortality across 17 European countries. Our data demonstrate that overwinter losses ranged between 2% and 32%, and that high summer losses were likely to follow high winter losses. Multivariate Poisson regression models revealed that hobbyist beekeepers with small apiaries and little experience in beekeeping had double the winter mortality rate when compared to professional beekeepers. Furthermore, honey bees kept by professional beekeepers never showed signs of disease, unlike apiaries from hobbyist beekeepers that had symptoms of bacterial infection and heavy Varroa infestation. Our data highlight beekeeper background and apicultural practices as major drivers of honey bee colony losses. The benefits of conducting trans-national monitoring schemes and improving beekeeper training are discussed.

Epidemiology of Rhinoestrus Spp. Larvae Infesting Donkeys in Egypt

The aim of this study was updating the information about the prevalence of infestation with Rhinoestrus spp. larvae in Egypt and as a result determining the correct time for chemotherapy. 303 Egyptian donkeys (Equus asinus) of different ages and sex slaughtered at Giza Zoo slaughter house from June 2014 to May 2015 were examined for the presence of Rhinoestrus spp. larvae. A total of 8388 Rhinoestrus spp. larvae [7221 L1 (86.08%), 545 L2 (6.49%), 622 L3 (7.41%)] were recovered from 74.91% of donkeys with an overall mean of 27.68 ± 2.43 larvae per head. Heavier infestations were recorded in winter and summer. There were more than two generations of Rhinoestrus spp. occurred in the year. Two yearly treatments during June and November are recommended for eradication of such infestation from donkeys.

Heavy Infestation of Sugracane Pyrilla in Rice, Probable Reason of Spread and its Control in the State of J &amp; K, India

Heavy Infestation of Sugracane Pyrilla in Rice, Probable Reason of Spread and its Control in the State of J &amp; K, India

Fauna of ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) and their seasonal infestation rate on Camelus dromedarius (Mammalia: Camelidae) in Masileh region, Qom province, Iran

Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) are obligatory blood feeders and important external parasites of wildlife, domestic animals and humans in tropical and subtropical areas. Ticks primarily transmit different pathogenic organisms to livestock and humans, and secondly harm their animal hosts by decreasing blood protein content and nutrients due to partial exsanguinations, induce allergic reaction and sometimes cause tick paralysis or toxicosis. In this study, ticks have been collected from different body parts of stable kept male and female camels ( Camelus dromedarius ) in monthly intervals from late April 2012 to late March 2013 in Masileh region of Qom province, Iran. All tick have been collected and identified according to male individual characters. Totally, 1265 ticks (42.5% and 57.4% from stable male and female camels respectively) have been collected. Tick identification based on male characters revealed Hyalomma dromedarii (40.7%), H. schulzei (40.3%) and H. marginatum (18.8%). Heavy camel infestation by H. schulzei was recorded for the first time from central part of Iran . Different tick infestation rates were recorded during June and January, from zero to 254 ticks. The highest mean number of collected ticks was 9.6 under tail of female camels among five body places during August. Statistical analysis showed a significant correlation between the number of collected ticks and sampling intervals, sex of camels and place of camel bodies. Out of five camel body places, ticks were collected regularly from four body parts. Periodical infestation by H. dromedarii under tail, belly, thigh and neck of both camel sexes was found to be longer than for H. schulzei and H. marginatum . It could be concluded that any control measure for camel tick infestation should be planned before March-April in Masileh region of Qom, Iran.