Effluent Monitoring Research Articles

Theoretical effects of feed composition, feed conversion and feed spillage on waste discharge in fish culture

Based on feed composition, fish composition and feed conversion, some theoretical effects of feeding on waste discharge are calculated to illustrate the appropriateness of farm effluent monitoring. The effects of feed conversion and feed spillage and feed composition on waste discharge (suspended and dissolved N, P & COD) are demonstrated. Slight variations in feed conversion at the moment of sampling, especially those evoked by feed spillage, have tremendous consequences for discharge values. It appears crucial to determine whether observed conversions are explained by inherent efficiencies of fish growth, or whether higher growth efficiencies are combined with feed spillage. Therefore, thorough knowledge of relationships between nutrient intake and growth should be applied to effluent assessment. A calculation is presented to serve as a preliminary assessment of the impacts of these variables on water quality monitoring. The concept is illustrated using measurements from a recirculation pilot eel culture system.

Environmental Monitoring of Hanford Nuclear Facility Effluents by Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry

Thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) is a sensitive method for environmental monitoring of effluent radionuclides around nuclear material production facilities. Isotopic analysis by positive and negative TIMS is an essential tool for the assessment of both the inventory and migration of radionuclides in the environment. Instrumentation used for trace-level isotope ratio measurements is described. Examples are given of environmental measurements of plutonium and radioiodine at the Hanford Site, a former nuclear material production site. In favorable cases, complete isotopic analyses are obtained on total analytes in the femtogram range, and minor isotopes in the attogram range are measured. The method of direct particle-inlet mass spectrometry (PIMS) for real-time analysis of airborne particles is also described, along with PIMS instrumentation. Examples are given that demonstrate the capability of PIMS to measure uranium isotope ratios in individual particles without isolating them from complex, heterogeneous samples.

Surrogate Detection for Continuous Emission Monitoring by Resonance Ionization

ABSTRACT New measurements of resonance ionization detection limits are presented for seven species, of high thermal stability, which are potentially useful surrogates for continuous emission monitoring of incinerator effluent. Resonance ionization detection limit data are now available for 20 aliphatic and aromatic compounds; eight of these compounds have sub part-per-billion detection limits. These eight also exhibit selectivities exceeding 103 when detected in the presence of a “soup” of chemically similar interferant species likely to be present in stack gas samples. Preliminary measurements indicate that detection limits, obtained under ideal conditions in a helium carrier gas, are also approached under adverse sampling conditions tested with synthetic “soups”. The implications of these measurements on the selection of surrogates and the prospects for repetitive on-line hazardous emissions monitoring are discussed

Design, calibration, and operation of 220Rn stack effluent monitoring systems at Argonne National Laboratory.

A group of stack effluent monitoring systems have been developed to monitor discharges of 220Rn from a hot cell facility at Argonne National Laboratory. The stack monitors use flow-through scintillation cells and are completely microprocessor-based systems. A method for calibrating the stack monitors in the laboratory and in the field is described. A nominal calibration factor for the stack monitoring systems in use is 15.0 cts min-1 per kBq m-3 (0.56 cts min-1 per pCi L-1) +/- 26% at the 95% confidence level. The plate-out fraction of decay products in the stack monitor scintillation cells, without any pre-filtering, was found to be nominally 25% under normal operating conditions. When the sample was pre-filtered upstream of the scintillation cell, the observed cell plate-out fraction ranged from 16-22%, depending on the specific sampling conditions. The instantaneous 220Rn stack concentration can be underestimated or overestimated when the steady state condition established between 220Rn and its decay products in the scintillation cell is disrupted by sudden changes in the monitored 220Rn concentration. For long-term measurements, however, the time-averaged response of the monitor represents the steady state condition and leads to a reasonable estimate of the average 220Rn concentration during the monitoring period.

Application of delay systems for ecological monitoring of industrial effluents

We examine the feasibility of designing sensitive elements for monitoring aqueous effluents of the electroplating industry based on electrodynamic delay systems.

Gaseous radioactive effluent restrictions, measurement, and minimization at a PET/Cyclotron Facility

In the US, restrictions on the release of radioactive effluents from PET (positron emission tomography)/cyclotron facilities are typically imposed by State regulatory agencies and may be based on various methodologies and limits published by numerous agencies. This work presents suitable effluent concentration limits for various chemical forms of radioisotopes routinely produced in PET/cyclotron facilities. They were determined by application of metabolic models defined by ICRP 53 [International Commission on Radiological Protection, ICRP Publication 53 (1988)] and ICRP 26/30 which will result in compliance with effective dose equivalent limits of 100 mrem per year at the release point. The NIH Cyclotron Facility effluent air monitoring system, environmental dosimetry program, and simple, effective systems for radioactive effluent minimization are also described.

Predicting Bioaccumulation of Chlorinated Dioxins and Furans in Fish Near Canadian Bleached Kraft Mills

Abstract The use of bioaccumulation factors (BAFs), biota/sediment accumulation factor (BSAF) and a simplified kinetics-based food chain model, for the prediction of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and 2,3,7,ß-tetrachlorodibenzofuran (TCDF) levels in biota near chlorine bleached kraft pulp mills was investigated. Data from recent (1988-90) Canadian fish, sediment and effluent monitoring studies were utilized. BAFs for TCDD in suckers (Catostomus sp.) and whitefish ranged 1.8 × 106 to 4.2 × 106 and those for TCDF from 1.0 × 106 to 3.0 × 106. These “field-derived” BAFs , which were calculated from levels in whole fish or muscle and estimated river water concentrations, exceeded laboratory-derived steady-state bioconcentration factors by 10 to 100-fold. BSAF’s for TCDD and TCDF in suckers from 17 riverine sites averaged 0.47 and 1.44, respectively. Weak but statistically significant correlations were found between log10 TCDD and TCDF concentrations in suckers and whitefish lipid and log sediment organic carbon. A wide range of BSAFs were found for crayfish, mussels and benthic insect larvae exposed to particle-bound TCDF in an experimental lake mesocosm indicating that use of BSAF as a predictive tool requires site specific information such as food chain length and habitat type. A food chain model, based on the work of Thomann and Connolly, predicted TCDD and TCDF concentrations in whitefish and suckers at most locations, despite many simplifying assumptions. The greatest simplification was the use of a mean annual flow and simple dilution of mill effluent to estimate dissolved and particle-associated TCDD/TCDF concentrations. Use of bed sediment concentrations to predict concentrations in upper trophic levels did not improve model predictions. With emissions of TCDD and TCDF declining, further application of food chain models will require detailed knowledge of the fate of contaminants in bed and suspended sediments and river hydrodynamics.

A Review On Pollution Control And Ecology Water Pollution Control Permit: Effluent Limitations And Monitoring Requirements

The purpose of this study is to review the effluent limitations and monitoring requirements authorized by the Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology and proposes recomendations to enhance the improvement of the present requirements. The study is done at the city of Fayetteville and it concentrates on three main issues: 1. Sampling methods: Grab Versus Composite Sampling 2. Cost of the Sampling methods 3. Distinction between a fixed monthly average and a moving average. Explanations and suggestions made are based on information from relevant literatures compiled with respect to monitoring of water quality. With the recomendations forwarded, it is hoped to aid the Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology to better understand the advantages and disadvantages of the Grab and Composite Sampling, realizing the cost involved and the distinction between using a fixed monthly average and a moving average measurement on the discharge limitation.

Priority pollutant loads from effluent discharges to the San Francisco Estuary

ABSTRACT: Effluent monitoring data collected under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Program were used to estimate pollutant loads from effluent discharges to the San Francisco Estuary for the period of 1984–1987. Most analyses of priority pollutant concentrations in effluents yielded “below detection limit” (BDL) results. Although many pollutants were monitored in effluents, quantitative assessment of spatial and temporal trends in loads could only be performed for four pollutants (chromium, copper, nickel, and zinc) that were detected in more than 50% of analyses. Four municipal wastewater treatment facilities accounted for approximately 50% of the total loads of these elements to the Estuary. Statistically significant declines in loads from some of the largest dischargers were observed. Modifications to procedures for collecting and reporting effluent monitoring data that would enhance the value of these data in assessments of mass loading include the use of more sensitive analytical methods for pollutants of greatest concern, increased sampling frequency for large discharges, routine reporting of B D L results in their uncensored form, and comprehensive reporting of quality assurance data.

Disposal of Petrochemical Plant Effluents by Shell UK at Stanlow

The co-disposal of petrochemical plant wastewaters with domestic and industrial effluent is described, with emphasis on pretreatment and effluent management aspects, as conducted by the effluent producer. A brief history of the specific development of co-disposal of Shell Chemicals (Stanlow manufacturing complex) effluent is given, leading to the recently completed investment of £5.2 million in improved pretreatment facilities, allowing full and failure-free advantage to be taken of the sewage-treatment facilities installed by North West Water at Ellesmere Port for the disposal of Shell Chemicals effluent, at a cost of £7.5 million, and commissioned in 1985. Effluent quality problems, and the establishment of dedicated effluent monitoring routines, are described together with the installation of quality and volume monitoring of individual effluents, leading to both processing cost allocation and management accountability. A description is given of the original and redeveloped pretreatment unit for neutralization, de-oiling and clarification of the effluent. Brief reference is made to liaison arrangements between Shell and North West Water and to the training of staff in effluent management.

Direct coupling of high-speed counter-current chromatography to thin-layer chromatography: Application to the separation of asiaticoside and madecassoside from Centella asiatica

The direct coupling of high-speed counter-current chromatography to thin-layer chromatography is proposed as an efficient method for the on-line monitoring of the column effluent. It requires a simple adaptation of the fittings of a Linomat C device without modification of the software. An application to the separation of asiaticoside and madecassoside from a crude extract of Centella asiatica is presented.

High-performance displacement chromatography—mass spectrometry of tryptic peptides of recombinant human growth hormone

The combination of high-performance displacement chromatography with continuous flow fast atom bombardment (FAB)-mass spectrometry (MS) offers a means ov overcoming the sample capacity limitations imposed by the low flow-rates tolerated in microbore systems employed for directly coupled liquid chromatography—MS. Displacement chromatography is performed at high concentrations with the same equipment and columns as typically used in chromatography at low concentrations. By using this mode of chromatography with a soltuion of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide as the displacer, the capacity of a reversed-phase column can be increased 50- to 100-fold for separation of a tryptic digest of biosynthetic human growth hormone. Despite the high load, the use of displacement chromatography allowed high-resolution separation of the complex mixture of eighteen major components. On-line analysis by continuous flow FAB-MS yielded high-quality spectra of these peptides and demonstrated that sharp, single-component bands can be obtained in this separation. Along with the major fragments, the chromatogram showed other peptides originating from protein variants in the sample, from non-specific cleavage in the enzymatic digest or from autolysis of trypsin. On-line analysis also allowed selective ion monitoring of the column effluent for individual pepetides and confirmed the high efficiency and resolution obtained by preparative displacement separations on HPLC columns and equipment.

A proposed MISA approach to setting limits and assessing compliance

Ontario's MISA program is intended to reduce all municipal and industrial waste loadings and to virtually eliminate the release of persistent toxic contaminants to surface waters. Based on 12-months of effluent monitoring data, effluent limit guidelines will be issued for 9 industrial and municipal sectors. The effluent limits will be based on the best available technology economically achievable and will involve extensive statistical analyses of the monitoring data. Proposed statistical methods for the derivation of effluent limits and assessing compliance are presented, along with brief information on the criteria for selection of pollutants and sample size requirements for the MISA effluent monitoring program. The proposed methods are not the policies of the Ministry of the Environment and may or may not be used for the development of effluent limits.

Three Mile Island and the Environment

As a part of routine plant operations, limited quantities of radioactive materials are released to the environment in liquid and airborne effluents. An effluent control program is implemented to ensure that the amount of radioactive materials released to the environment is minimal and does not exceed federal release limits. Effluent control is accomplished by plant components such as the ventilation system and filters, waste gas holdup tanks, demineralizers, and an evaporator system. In addition to minimizing the release of radioactive materials, the effluent control program includes all aspects of effluent and environmental monitoring. The Three Mile Island (TMI) radiological environmental program consists of taking radiation measurements and collecting samples from the environment, analyzing them for radioactivity content, and interpreting the results. With the emphasis on the critical pathways to humans, samples from the aquatic, atmospheric, and terrestrial environments are collected. Radiation doses to the public are estimated from the direct measurement of the dose rates from external sources and measurement of radionuclide concentrations in the environment that may contribute to an internal dose of radiation. Dose rates and radionuclide concentrations in the environment from normal plant operations are typically too small to be measured. As a result, the potential off-site doses are calculated using a computerized model that predicts concentrations of radioactive materials in the environment and estimates subsequent radiation doses. Radiological environmental monitoring performed by the TMI operator and independent agencies has confirmed the adequacy of engineering designs and effluent controls. Radiation doses to the public from normal operations have been far less than the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency environmental standards, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission dose limit guidelines, and the doses received from natural background radiation. Based on the results from years of effluent and environmental monitoring, which have been verified by independent monitoring, it is proper to conclude that radioactive releases from TMI have had no adverse effect on either the quality of the environment or the health and safety of the public.

Monitoring of Fertilizer Plant Effluents for Phosphorus, Sulfur, and Metals Using Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission Spectrometry

Abstract At present, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) lists total P, F, and total suspended solids as effluent limitations for fertilizer manufacturing point source discharges. Other contaminants, including metals, may be added on a plant-by-plant permitting basis. EPA test method 200.7 lists 25 metals that may be determined by inductively coupled plasma (ICP) emission spectrometry as dissolved, suspended, or total elements in drinking and surface waters and domestic and industrial wastewaters. A method to measure a large number of these metals, as well as phosphorus and sulfur in fertilizer plant effluent water, by ICP spectrometry is described. The ICP spectrometer offers quick, sensitive, and accurate determinations for all species of phosphorus and sulfur. Total P can be determined regardless of the species present (lower oxides, ortho, poly, or organic), and sensitivity to phosphorus (0.08 /μg/mL) is greater than for most other methods. Sensitivity to sulfur (0.1 /μg/mL) also is greater than for most other methods and can be determined as total, sulfate, sulfide, or sulfite by controlling sample preparation. The present paper addresses only the measurement of total S because methodology has not been completed for other species.

Thermospray ionization liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry: a new and highly specific technique for the analysis of bile acids.

A rapid, highly specific and sensitive combined high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric (LC-MS) method is described for the analysis of bile acids in biological fluids. Ionization of polar bile acid conjugates is achieved in the thermospray interface that is used to directly couple the LC column to the mass spectrometer, thereby allowing continuous monitoring of the LC effluent. Maximum sensitivity (4-10 pmol) is achieved by recording the negative ions generated in the ionization process and mass spectra obtained for the principal bile acid conjugates are characterized by intense [M-H]-pseudo-molecular ions and fragment ions due to consecutive losses of water corresponding to a number of hydroxyl groups in the molecule. The mass spectrometer thus provides molecular weight and useful structural information for each compound separated by HPLC. Applications of the LC-MS technique to the analysis of bile acids in bile and serum samples after an initial solid-phase extraction step highlight the potential of the thermospray interface for enhancing the specificity and sensitivity of the HPLC technique for bile acid analysis.

Chemical Monitoring: Effective Use of Chemical Analysis for Optimization of Contaminant Removal

Abstract A number of comprehensive programs have been carried out to characterize oil refinery wastewaters with respect to specific organic and inorganic toxic chemicals. This paper provides some background on these studies which have shown that wastewater treatment systems at refinery sites are effective in reducing or removing toxic chemicals. Also presented is a discussion of analytical variability so readers can better appreciate the validity of results obtained from effluent monitoring programs. The variability associated with some chemical analyses, can be significant. Finally, a recommended approach towards routinely monitoring effluent quality and effectiveness of treatment, is presented. This approach involves the monitoring for total phenols, as a possible “surrogate” parameter, along with a “short list” of demonstration parameters.

Development and fabrication of an in situ Cherenkov radiation detector

A detector has been developed for field surveillance of radioactivity in groundwater in wells that are 7.6 cm in diameter or larger, but it can be adapted to on-line monitoring of industrial waste effluents and municipal water treatment plants, as well as facilities that process chemical and nuclear wastes. The detector utilizes the principle of direct Cherenkov radiation counting of energetic betas and gamma-rays in an aqueous medium. For 90Y in equilibrium with its parent 90Sr, the response of the detector was linear with increased concentrations. The estimated detection limit for 90Y supported by the parent 90Sr is ∼ 1 pCi/ml for a 1000 s counting internal.

Determination of sensorial active trace compounds by multi-dimensional gas chromatography combined with different enrichment techniques

Gas chromatographic equipment and appropriate procedures are described for the identification and determination of sensorial active compounds in complex mixtures. Different sampling systems (liquid injection, thermal desorption, dynamic headspace) were integrated in a single double-oven gas chromatograph, additionally allowing multi-dimensional separation, detection by simultaneous sniffing-mass spectrometric monitoring or micro-preparative enrichment of capillary effluents. The modular construction easily adapts to the diverse requirements of sample analysis without great modifications. The versatility and flexibility of such a combination are illustrated with different applications.

Giardia and Virus Monitoring of Sewage Effluent in the State of Arizona

Arizona, located in the arid Southwestern United States, is heavily dependent on groundwater. In order to protect this limited resource, wastewater reuse has been implemented. Virus and Giardia monitoring of wastewater used for irrigation has also been initiated as a means for controlling the public's exposure to these pathogens. Treatment facilities must produce wastewater with no detectable Giardia cysts and one virus plaque forming unit (pfu) per 40 liters (L) for unrestricted reuse. For restricted reuse, 125 pfu/40 L is allowed. Methods based on filtration were used to monitor facilities at monthly, quarterly or biannual frequencies. Results after two years of monitoring are presented. All 11 treatment facilities produced water meeting the virus standard of 125 pfu/40 L. Only plants which used sand filtration and disinfection achieved consistent levels of virus below 1 pfu/40 L. Out of 70 samples, 74% contained no detectable viruses. Giardia was detected in 29 to 50% of the samples. Most plants would need to upgrade their treatment in order to meet standards for unrestricted irrigation.